^earning  anb  |tabor. 

LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  Illinois. 

CI.ASS.  BOOK.  VOLUME. 


Accession  No. 


THE 


EEALM  OF  MIJSIC« 


A SERIBS  OF  MUSICAL  ESSAYS,  CHIEFLY 
HISTORICAL  AND  EDUCATIONAL. 

BY 

LOUIS  C.  ELSON. 

Author  of  “ The  Curiosities  op  Music,’*  “ The  Theory  of  Music,’* 
“ The  History  of  German  Song,”  “ European 
Reminiscences,”  etc. 


FOURTH  EDITION. 


PUBLISHED  BY 

The  New  England  Conservatory  of  Music  o 

BOSTON, 

1900. 


Copyright,  1892,  by  Louis  C.  ElsoNo 


MANUFACTURED  BY 
F.  H.  GILSON  COMPANY, 
BOSTON. 


63 


PEEFACE. 


m 


These  essays  have  been  compiled  from  different 
periodicals  to  which  I have  been,  during  the  past 
ten  years,  a frequent  contributor.  In  collating  them 
I have  sought  not  so  much  for  literary  contrast  as  to 
present  to  the  musical  student  a series  of  views  of  our 
inexhaustible  art  in  many  widely-differing  phases. 
The  musician’s  reading,  even  in  the  technical  field,  is 
today  necessarily  a very  wide  one,  and  while  the3e 
articles  may  not  present  an  exhaustive  view  of  any 
one  subject,  they  may  at  least  lead  the  reader  to  take 
an  interest  in  the  different  branches  of  music,  and 
thereby  avoid  becoming  merely  a specialist  in  the 
>2  art — a result  to  which  the  keen  rivalry -of  the  present 
is  undoubtedly  leading.  In  the  hope  that  this  vol- 
ume may  be  the  entrance  to  further  musical  thought 
and  reading  it  is  submitted  to  the  student,  for  whom 
it  is  especially  intended. 


Louis  C.  Elson. 


£. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS= 


Reformers  in  Music  .... 

PAGE 

1 

The  Rise  of  the  Sonata 

. 42 

Law  and  Music 

. 58 

The  Development  of  Musical  Notation 

- Tir- 

Old English  Ballads  . ' . 

os 

The  Legends  of  Music  .... 

. 106 

Music  and  Medicine  .... 

. 123 

Royal  Musicians 

. 135 

Musicians’  Portunes  .... 

. 144 

A Strange  Singing-teacher  . 

. 158 

Musical  Instruments  and  their  Ejtochs 

. 163 

Wives  of  the  Great  Composers 

. 171 

Composers  at  Play  .... 

. 180 

Musical  Criticism  ..... 

. 182 

Musical  Humbugs 

. 200 

Deification  of  Composers 

. 206 

The  Caste  of  the  Musician  . 

. 209 

The  Evolution  of  Verdi 

. 212 

Musical  Antagonism  .... 

. 219 

Ancient  Estimates  of  Music 

. 222 

— The  Development  of  Technique  . 

. 225 

Emotion  in  Performance 

. 235 

Shakespeare  and  Goethe  in  Music 

. 238 

(5) 


6 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Musical  Novels  244 

^The  Technique  of  Composition  ......  247 

An  Old  Musical  Dictionary 251 

Composers’  Manuscripts . 260 

Fatal  Musical  Masterpieces  . 262 

History  in  Song  .........  265 

The  Intellectuality  of  Wagner  ......  269 

Eace  Peculiarities  in  Singing  ......  272 

Weak  Translations  ........  277 

Wagner  and  his  Enemies  .......  282 

Composers’  Thoughts  ........  287 

Our  National' Anthem  . . . . . . . . 290 

Musical  Conductors  ........  293 

The  Size  of  the  Modern  Orchestra  .....  301 

Poetical  Musical  Instruction  ......  304 

Musical  Eesemblances  ........  308 

Talent  and  Genius  ........  310 

A Dedication  (Poem)  .....  . . 313 


REFORMERS  IN  MUSIC. 


In  studying  the  history  of  musical  art  the  careful 
reader  cannot  fail  to  recognize  the  fact  that  of  the 
many  composers  who  have  now  places  upon  the  roll 
of  fame,  comparatively  few  have  made  new  paths  in 
art  and  been  pioneers  in  untrodden  musical  fields. 
Mozart,  for  example,  was  by  no  means  a musical 
reformer,  although  he  used  the  materials  of  his  art 
with  a skill  and  good  taste  beyond  any  of  his  pre- 
decessors. It  is  the  purpose  of  this  article  to  show 
what  musicians  have  gone  beyond  a mere  employ- 
ment of  forms  and  styles  invented  before  their  time, 
and  have  opened  new  modes  of  musical  expression, 
construction  or  form.  Such  men  have  sometimes 
been  less  appreciated  and  often  less  beautiful  in  their 
work  than  their  more  timid  brethren  in  art,  but  the 
world  none  the  less  owes  them  a debt  of  gratitude 
which  is  incalculable,  for  music  is  more  progres- 
sive and  confessedly  more  changeable  than  other 
arts,  and  requires  men  of  boldness  and  intuition  to 
guide  its  onw^ard  steps. 

Pythagoras  comes  first  upon  the  list  of  those  to 

(1) 


2 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


whom  we  are  indebted  in  this  manner ; or  possibly 
the  obligation  may  be  extended  to  the  Egyptian 
priests,  those  scientists  of  the  ancient  world  with 
whom  he  studied.  To  Pythagoras  is  due  the  first 
systematizing  of  music,  the  establishing  of  funda- 
mental laws  for  the  music  which  mankind  had  pre- 
viously produced  intuitively.  His  division  of  a 
vibrating  string  into  segments  evolved  a scale  which 
was  not  only  agreeable  to  the  ear,  but  could  be 
proven  to  be  built  upon  natural  laws.  The  fanciful 
connection  made  between  this  scale,  and  the  supposed 
harmony  of  the  spheres  was  not  to  be  classed  how- 
ever as  a reform,  although  the  ancient  Greeks  (about 
530  B.  C.)  undoubtedly  held  it  to  be  a valuable 
one.  The  names  of  the  notes,  taken  from  the  plane- 
tary system,  were  comprehensible  enough,  the  Sun 
being  the  controlling  middle  note  (or  tonic)  while 
Mercury,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Mars,  Venus  and  the 
Earth  circled  around  it. 

The  next  great  reformer  in  music  was  St.  Gregory 
(for  the  reforms  of  St.  Ambrose  were  but  fleeting), 
who  existed  in  the  sixth  century  of  our  era,  a thou- 
sand years  after  our  first-mentioned  musical  philos- 
opher. 

The  plagal  modes,  the  diatonic  character  of  the 
scale,  and  the  general  modernization  of  the  Greek 
music,  from  which  far-distant  fountain-head  our  own 


liEFORBIEllS  m MUSIC. 


3 


music  has  streamed,  we  owe  to  this  reformer  of  the 
dark  ages. 

As  yet,  everything  was  unison  in  music,  so  far  as 
one  can  ascertain  from  the  misty  chronicles  of  the 
most  obscure  period  of  the  art,  but  now  there  steps 
upon  the  scene  another  reformer  who  brings  about  a 
series  of  comihnations  of  tones,  consecutive  fifths  and 
fourths,  which,  crude  as  they  were,  were  still  the 
beginning  of  part-music.  Hucbald,  the  Flemish 
monk  who  brought  this  about  in  the  tenth  century, 
may  have  been  rather  an  adapter  than  a reformer, 
and  the  barbaric  combinations  may  have  existed 
before  his  time  ; nevertheless  to  him  is  due  the  honor 
of  being  the  first  in  the  world’s  history  to  formulate  a 
system  of  simultaneous  sounding  of  different  tones, 
thus  producing  harmony.  It  will  be  observed  by 
the  reasoning  student  that  “Music,  heavenly  maid  !” 
is  the  youngest  of  the  sisterhood  of  arts,  except  in  the 
simplest  elements  of  melody,  and  beside  painting  or 
sculpture  she  is  a mere  infant.  One  can  also  inferen- 
tially  discern  the  probability  that  the  wholesale  inter- 
dict placed  upon  the  use  of  consecutive  fifths  dated 
from  the  revulsion  against  the  harsh  comliinations  of 
Hucbald. 

In  the  next  century,  shortly  after  A.  D.  1000, 
there  appears  the  greatest  musical  reformer  of  the 
middle  ages.  Guido,  the  monk  of  Arezzo,  gave  to 


4 


THE  BEAL 31  OF  MUSIC. 


the  world  the  vocal  syllables  (originally  Ut,  Ee,  Mi, 
Fa,  Sol,  La,  only)  which  even  to-day  constitute  the 
groundwork  of  Solfeggio.  The  origin  of  these,  from 
the  first  syllables  of  a hymn  to  St.  John,  is  probably 
known  to  most  musical  readers,  but  the  important 
fact  is  not  so  generally  understood  that  this  was  the 
beginning  of  sight-singing.  Before  this  time  the 
teaching  of  music  was  purely  oral  and  imitative. 
The  teacher  sang  a song  and  the  pupil  sang  it  after 
him  until  it  was  committed  to  memory.  With  the 
invention  of  the  vocal  syllables  began  the  science  of 
musical  pedagogics.  This  practical  reformer,  of  the 
eleventh  century  w^as  the  first  real  music  teacher. 
The  first  use  of  staff  and  clef  is  also  attributed  to  him 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  can  justly  lay  claim  to 
oriofinatino^  these.  The  name  of  the  musician  who 
first  had  the  hardihood  to  protest  against  Hucbald’s 
crude  progressions  of  fifths  (called  Organum)  is 
unfortunately  lost  to  posterity,  but  it  is  possible  that 
he  was  an  Englishman,  for  the  early  writers  attribute 
the  invention  of  counterpoint  to  the  English.  It 
was  Franco  of  Cologne,  however,  in  the  twelfth  or 
thirteenth  century,  who  gave  to  the  advanced  style 
of  music  an  equally  advanced  notation.  He  cannot 
be  credited  with  having  invented  the  entire  system 
of  notation  ; that  was  built  up  through  the  ages  and 
its  invention  belongs  to  no  one  man,  but  Franco  cer- 


BEFOBMEBS  IX  MUSIC. 


tainly  formulated  it  into  a sensil)lc  system  and  wrote 
an  important  book  about  it,  ealled  ^^Ars  Cantus 
Mensurahilis^'  (“The  art  of  measured  song”)  which 
is  the  earliest  practical  and  intelligible  treatise  on 
music  extant.  He  fixed  and  defined  the  staff*, and 
the  clefs  (the  F clef  being  the  most  ancient  and  im- 
portant at  that  time) , and  for  the  first  time  used  notes ^ 
which  he  gave  in  diff’erent  shapes  corresponding  to 
their  diff'erent  lengths.  The  names  of  some  of  his 
notes,  as  the  Brevis  (double  whole  note,)  the  Semi- 
brevis  (whole  note,)  and  Minima,  (half  note)  are 
still  used  in  the  English  nomenclature  although  the 
present  rhythmic  system  Avould  seem  to  make  these 
names  impracticable. 

The  name  of  Adam  de  la  Hale  deserves  a place  in 
this  portion  of  our  list,  for  he  was  the  first  composer 
who  is  known  to  have  composed  properly-formed 
part  music.  He  was  a trouvere^  or  minstrel,  of 
North  France,  and  existed  at  the  end  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  Avhich  facts  are  very  nearly  all  that 
can  be  ascertained  about  him.  He  was  called  the 
hunchback  of  Arras,  although  it  is  doubted  whether 
he  was  deformed.  He  composed  the  first  French 
comic  opera,  being  thus  the  founder  of  a school  that 
has  ffourished  ever  since  in  his  country. 

The  next  of  the  originators  in  music  was  Jean  de 


* See  essay  on  “ Notation.” 


6 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Muris,  or  de  Meurs,  who  was  not  only  the  first  to 
apply  the  word  counterpoint  to  the  then  new  style  of 
composition,  but  was  the  first  to  compose  in  florid 
counterpoint.  He  existed  in  the  fourteenth  century 
and  was  predecessor  to  a host  of  skillful  composers 
who  brought  music  to  a higher  level  than  it  had  ever 
before  attained,  although  in  their  works  there  was 
far  more  of  intricacy  and  ingenuity  than  of  musical 
feeling.  Emotion  had  not  yet  been  recognized,  at 
least  by  the  schools  of  that  epoch,  as  the  true  basis 
of  music ; their  works  were  rather  from  the  head 
than  from  the  heart. 

The  first  real  school  of  composition  was  that  of  the 
Flemings,  or  Belgians.  The  rise  of  this  set  of  com- 
posers cannot  be  placed  much  before  the  year  1400, 
and  one  cannot  find  a systematic  style  of  work  in 
musical  construction  which  would  satisfy  modern 
critics,  before  this  epoch.  Therefore  the  art  of  com- 
position cannot  be  proved  to  have  an  age  of  even  five 
hundred  years.  Canonic  imitation  was  fairly  well 
developed  by  the  pioneers  of  this  school,  first  among 
whom  in  point  of  chronology  is  William  Dufay, 
(1380-1430),  who  has  a good  right  to  be  mentioned 
in  our  list  of  musical  founders  and  reformers.  Al- 
though the  very  beginnings  of  canon  can  be  found 
in  the  English  “ Six  men’s  Song”  entitled  “ Sumer 
is  icumen  in,”  Dufay  may  receive  the  credit  of  being 


BEF0BMEB8  IN  MUSIC. 


7 


the  first  to  systematize  this  style  of  work,  and  also 
of  having  much  enlarged  the  limited  scale  system  of 
Guido.  His  fame  extended  far  beyond  Italy,  where 
he  was  engaged  during  the  larger  part  of  his  life  in 
composing  works  for  the  Pope’s  chapel  in  Rome. 
His  works  had  more  of  expression  than  one  would 
imagine  possible  in  those  early  days,  and  in  this 
respect  were  more  natural  and  praiseworthy  than 
those  of  some  of  his  successors  where  pedantic  skill 
began  to  usurp  the  place  of  emotion.  None  the  less 
the  labors  of  such  early  workers  in  the  mines  of 
music  gave  a rich  legacy  to  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
teenth centuries ; they  gave  to  the  world  the  crude 
ore,  which  Bach,  Beethoven  and  the  later  composers 
worked  into  loftiest  shapes  : their  labors  can  be  com- 
pared to  those  of  the  old  alchemists  from  whose 
plodding  studies  so  much  of  modern  science  has 
sprung. 

Johannes  Ockeghem,  generally  spelled  Ockenheim, 
(1430-1513),  is  the  next  great  name  on  the  list  of 
musicians  to  whom  the  world  owes  much.  He  fol- 
lowed In  the  footsteps  of  Dufay,  but  his.  composi- 
tions have  more  form  and  symmetry,  although  the 
pedantries  alluded  to  above  began  to  appear  fre- 
quently in  his  works.  Difficult  canons,  generally 
four-voiced,  and  many  of  which  have  to  be  solved, 
like  problems,  by  mystical  words  and  phrases  at- 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


taclied,  were  among  these.  The  mediaeval  workmen 
were  laying  the  foundation  of  music,  rather  than 
building  a beautiful  edifice.  Kiese wetter  proves  that 
it  was  Ockenheim’s  work  that  difiused  the  art  of 
music  through  different  countries , and  that  he  is  gen- 
ealogically the  father  of  modern  music. 

It  was  not  only  in  composition  that  great  activity 
was  displayed  during  the  fifteenth  century ; the 
organ  had  been  greatly  improved,  and  great  per- 
formers on  this  instrument  began  to  appear  ; the  lute 
was  performed  frequently  as  an  accompaniment  to 
song,  and  secular  instrumental  music  had  a worthy 
beginning  in  solos  composed  for  this  instrument, 
while  in  1502  Ottaviano  dei  Petrucci  brought  forth 
the  momentous  invention  of  printing  music  with 
movable  types,  an  innovation  of  as  much  importance 
to  the  progress  of.  music  as  the  works  of  any  com- 
poser whatever. 

Ockenheim’s  pupils  began  to  spread  over  Europe, 
and  with  them  went  all  the  skill  and  learning  of  his 
school.  Professorships  of  music  were  established  in 
different  universities,  and  a vast  activity  was  dis- 
played in  an  art  which  the  church  took  especially 
under  her  protection.  Josquin  des  Pres  (1445- 
1521)  was  the  greatest  of  Ockenheim’s  pupils.  He 
was  a reformer  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  depart- 
ing from  the  formal  rigidity  of  his  master  and  of  the 


BEFOUMEUS  IN  MUSIC. 


9 


older  school,  and  giving  to  music  a freedom  and 
tyeniality  it  had  not  before  possessed.  Des  Pres  is 
classed  hy  Kiesewetter  as  one  of  the  leading  musical 
geniuses  of  any  age,  and  the  great  German  historian 
Ambros  joins  in  the  tribute  to  his  ease  and  beauty  of 
construction.  He  was  a man  of  culture  and  wit,  and 
was  fortunate  in  living  in  a golden  period  of  Italian 
art,  and  in  being  thrown  into  contact  with  many  of 
the  leading  spirits  of  his  time.  His  humor  sparkled 
through  much  of  his  music,  but  was  naturally  not  more 
refined  than  his  epoch  ; some  of  the  sul)jects  he  chose 
for  his  muse  were  not  only  undignified  but  remark- 
ably vulgar.  Ills  arrangement  of  the  favorite  song  of 
an  Italian  monarch  who  had  no  voice,  with  a single 
note  (pedal  point)  for  the  unmusical  king,  was  a 
touch  of  irony  which  Mendelssohn,  less  satirically, 
imitated  centuries  after  in  the  part  allotted  to  his 
voiceless  brother-in-law  Hensel,  in  “ Son  and  Stran- 
ger.” 

Orlando  di  Lasso"^  (1520-1594)  has  generally 
been  considered  as  the  culmination  of  the  school 
which  began  with  Dufay  and  Ockenheim.  He  com- 
posed over  two  thousand  ivorks^  many  of  them  large 
and  well-developed  compositions.  A more  success- 
ful life  than  his  cannot  well  be  imagined.  Gifted  as 
a boy  with  a beautiful  voice,  well  favored  in  person, 

* In  tlie  native  tongue  of  the  composer  the  name  was  Roland 
de  Lattre. 


10  THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC.' 

and  pleasing  in  manner,  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end  di  Lasso  was  the  favorite  of  princes,  the  pet  of 
the  courts  of  Europe.  Poets  sang  his  praises,  his- 
torians lavished  on  him  their  choicest  adjectives  : 
“ Orpheus  drew  the  rocks  to  him,  but  Lasso  could 
have  drawn  Orpheus,”  says  one  adulatory  writer; 

‘ ‘ Hie  ille  est  Lassus  lassum  qui  recreat  orbem ; 
discordemque  sua  capulat  harmonia,”  is  an  epitaph 
written  by  another.  Lasso  was  the  last  of  the  celebri- 
ties of  the  Belgium  school.  This  school  of  compos- 
ers was,  as  already  intimated,  the  dawn  of  music,  the 
foundation  of  harmony  and  counterpoint,  and  it  had 
given  to  the  world  in  the  two  centuries  of  its  exis- 
tence, over  three  hundred  composers  of  more  or 
less  eminence.  That  many  of  its  leaders  exerted 
their  influence  in  Kome  was  but  natural,  since  the 
Popes  drew  around  them  all  the  great  artists  of  that 
epoch  to  work  in  the  cause  of  the  church. 

One  of  the  great  reformers,  however,  was  settled 
in  Venice,  and  there  exerted  an  influence  which  was 
fruitful  in  good  results.  Adrian  Willaert  (1480- 
1562)  was  the  organist  and  director  in  St.  Mark’s 
cathedral  in  Venice,  and  not  only  won  the  foremost 
rank  there  by  his  compositions,  but  emphatically 
deserves  the  name  of  inventor  and  reformer  in  music, 
because  of  the  important  innovations  which  he  in- 
troduced. Chief  among  these  was  the  tempered 


BEFOBMEBS  IN  MUSIC. 


11 


scale,*  a modification  of  the  scale  of  nature  that 
alone  made  music  on  keyed  instruments  practicable. 
The  scale  of  nature,  with  its  varying  intervals, 
beautiful  in  progressions  and  harmonies,  and  emi- 
nently fitted  for  the  vocalist  or  violonist,  could  only  be 
employed  on  the  organ  when  modulation  was  absent, 
and  the  work  remained  entirely  (or  nearly  so)  in 
one  key.  By  the  simple  device  of  dividing  the 
octave  into  twelve  equal  semitones,  Willaert  solved  a 
problem  that,  although  not  of  vast  importance  in  his 
day,  when  modulations  were  but  sparingly  used, 
became  each  century  of  greater  dimensions.  This 
reform,  because  of  the  reason  stated,  was  but  slowly 
adopted  by  the  world.  As  the  field  of  music  began 
to  enlarge,  a system  of  partial  temperament  was 
adopted  which  allowed  the  organist  to  play  in  a few 
keys  closely  related  to  F and  C,  without  getting 
discordantly  out  of  tune,  but  such  keys  as  F-sharp 
major,  D-fiat  major,  etc.,  were  deemed  altogether 
unnecessary,  and  were  not  used  until  a much  later 
epoch.  Willaert  was  the  founder  of  the  Venetian 
school  of  composition  of  that  time,  a school  which 
m the  seventeenth  century  gave  forth  many  eminent 
composers,  and  exerted  a direct  influence  upon  the 
German  school  of  a later  epoch.  He  was  the  first 

* Zarlino  and  others  deserve  some  credit  in  this  matter,  but 
Willaert  was  the  first  to  broach  the  theory  of  the  tempered  scale 
with  clearness  and  logic. 


12 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


composer  to  write  music  in  six,  seven,  and  even 
eight  voiced  harmony.  He  was  also  the  first  to 
employ  two  and  three  choruses  in  large  religious 
works,  a great  heightening  of  effect  whether  used 
simultaneously  or  antiphonally.  Willaert  has  also 
been  held  to  be  the  inventor  of  the  Madrigal,  a form 
of  vocal  composition  which  was  the  flower  of  the  con- 
trapuntal period,  at  least  among  the  shorter  vocal 
forms. 

It  is  evident  from  all  these  deeds  that  the  name  of 
Adrian  Willaert  was  by  no  means  the  least  among  the 
famous  galaxy  which  formed  the  glory  of  the  Flemish 
or  Belgian  school,  and  this  school  embraced  on  its 
roll  of  fame  almost  all  of  the  pioneers  in  that  art  of 
combining  tones  in  moving  progression  (as  distinct 
from  mere  melody)  which  is  to  us  the  true  life  and 
beauty  of  Music. 

The  Belgian  school  came  to  its  end  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  but  there  was  no  interregnum  in  the  onward 
progress  of  music,  for  at  once  there  sprang  into  ex- 
istence an  Italian  reformer,  who,  contemporary  with 
the  last  of  the  Netherlanders,  composed  music  before 
which  even  we  in  the  nineteenth  century  stand  in  silent 
wonder.  In  1514  was  born  at  Palestrina  in  the  Koman 
campagna,  Giovanni  Pierluigi,  the  most  eminent  of  all 
early  contrapuntists'^  whose  fame  has  made  the  name 

♦ Some  authorities  give  the  date  as  1528,  1524,  or  1529. 


EEFOBMERS  IiY  MUSIC. 


13 


of  the  little  city  where  he  was  born,  immortal.  He 
began  the  study  of  music  at  Rome,  at  a very  early 
age,  under  Claudio  Goudimel,  one  of  the  Belgian 
masters,  who  afterwards  was  murdered  in  the  terrible 
massacre  at  St.  Bartholomew.  He  advanced  rapidly 
and  soon  became  a chapel  master  of  the  Vatican.  He 
soon  brought  out  a volume  of  masses,  and  it  may 
be  recorded  that  these  were  the  first  important  musi- 
cal works  published  by  an  Italian  composer.  The 
Belgians  had,  up  to  that  time,  entirely  dominated 
the  music  of  Italy.  Shortly  after  the  year  1550  Pal- 
estrina married.  Of  his  wife  little  is  known,  save 
that  she  bore  him  four  sons,  and  that  the  wedded  life 
of  the  master  seems  to  have  been  an  exceptionally 
happy  one.  The  book  of  masses  mentioned  above 
had  been  dedicated  to  Pope  Julius  HI,  and  very  soon 
this  pope  offered  him  in  return,  a position  in  his 
private  chapel  as  one  of  the  singers,  at  a higher  sal- 
ary than  he  was  receiving  as  chapel  master.  As 
Palestrina  was  a married  man,  this  appointment  was 
a bold  violation  of  the  rules  of  the  papal  college,  but 
none  the  less  the  post  was  accepted. 

Palestrina  was  unfortunate  in  the  early  death  of 
the  popes  who  were  most  friendly  to  him  : scarcely 
had  he  entered  on  his  new  duties  when  Julius  HI 
died.  His  successor,  Marcellus  II,  who  was  also 
predisposed  in  favor  of  the  young  composer,  died 


14 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


after  holding  his  position  twenty-three  days,  and 
Paul  ly,  who  followed,  dismissed  him  as  being  too 
poor  a singer  to  fill  a position  in  the  choir,  and 
because  he  would  have  none  but  celibates  in  the 
papal  musical  service.  Spite  of  the  fact  that  the  po- 
tentate tempered  this  dismissal  with  a small  pension, 
Palestrina  was  so  overcome  by  it  that  he  took  to  his 
bed  with  a severe  attack  of  nervous  fever  which  came 
very  near  finishing  his  life  before  his  work  was  fairly 
begun.  The  best  possible  remedy  for  his  despair 
soon  came  in  the  shape  of  another  appointment  as 
chapel  master  at  the  Lateran.  After  a transfer  to  an- 
other church,  he  finally  again  became  maestro  at  the 
Vatican.  Now  his  works  began  to  pour  forth  in  a 
voluminous  manner,  and  he  began  to  show  that  he 
was  able  to  use  all  the  science  which  he  had  acquired 
in  the  school  of  the  composers  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  yet  break  the  fetters  of  their  pedantry.  Mad- 
rigals, masses,  sacred  works  of  all  descriptions  began 
to  appear  from  his  pen,  and  he,  more  than  any  of  his 
predecessors,  seemed  to  have  acquired  the  art  of  giving 
expression  and  meaning  to  his  music,  illustrative  of 
the  words  to  which  it  was  attached.  Music  in  the 
church  was  certainly  at  that  epoch  not  always  of  a 
reverent  character.  The  Flemings  would  at  times 
show  their  skill  by  weaving  an  entire  mass  around 
a drinking-song,  and  frequently  the  measures  of 


BEFOBMERf^  IN  MUSIC. 


15 


vulgar  street-songs,  sung  as  Canto  Fermo  against  a 
sacred  discant,  would  exhibit  the  learning  of  the 
composers  far  more  than  their  piety.  Palestrina 
changed  all  this.  Some  doubts  have  been  thrown 
upon  the  story  of  his  having  done  so  by  a public  test 
in  which  his  ‘‘  Mass  of  Pope  Marcellus  altogether 
vanquished  the  other  schools  of  work,  but  there  can 
be  no  doubt  about  his  having  brought  church  music 
in  Italy  to  a higher  standard  than  it  had  ever  before 
attained. 

If  to  our  ears  his  masses  seem  to  lack  emotion  and 
do  not  represent  different  phases  of  feeling,  we  must 
bear  in  mind  that  polyphonic  writing  can  never  pro- 
duce all  the  pathos  of  homophony,  and  that  dignity 
was  the  chief  essential  in  a service  that  was  and  is 
rather  a sacrifice  than  a prayer,  and  which  should 
maintain  something  of  the  lofty  impassive  character 
of  a Greek  chorus.  The  “ Mass  of  Pope  Marcellus  ” 
remains  a monument  of  the  pre-romantic  school,  the 
greatest,  most  earnest,  most  beautiful  musical  work 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  immediately  ap- 
preciated at  its  proper  worth,  and  pope,  cardinals, 
and  papal  choristers  all  agreed  that  it  was  the  acme 
of  ecclesiastical  music. 

* Ambros,  the  best  of  musical  historians,  has  cast  a doubt 
upon  Palestrina’s  reforms,  but  the  consensus  of  opinion  of  later 
writers  is  that  this  mass  saved  counterpoint  at  a time  when 
it  was  about  to  be  banished  from  the  service  of  the  church. 


16 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


As  a recompense  for  this  great  achievement  in  the 
cause  of  art,  Palestrina  was  appointed  composer  to 
the  pontifical  choir,  a post  which  was  created  espe-* 
cially  to  reward  the  singer  who  had  been  so  ignomin- 
iously  dismissed  years  before.  The  jealousies  of  the 
papal  musicians  which  soon  displayed  themselves, 
availed  nothing,  and  during  the  pontificate  of  seven 
different  popes  he  held  undisturbed  possession  of  his 
post,  Avhich  although  an  honorable  one,  was  not  a 
well-paid  one,  nor  did  the  dedication  of  a set  of  mag- 
nificent sacred  works  (in  which  the  famous  mass 
above  mentioned  was  included)  to  Philip  II  of  Spain, 
at  that  monarch’s  own  request,  produce  anything 
more  substantial  than  a message  of  thanks.  Never- 
theless all  of  his  works,  secular  as  well  as  sacred,  (the 
former  being  very  few  in  number)  went  through  many 
editions,  and  must  have  added  something  to  his 
slender  income,  while  the  patronage  and  friendship 
of  Cardinal  d’  Este  prevented  absolute  poverty  com- 
ing into  the  later  years  of  this  great  composer,  and 
when  he  lost  this  powerful  patron,  Giacomo  Buon- 
compagni,  nephew  (or  son)  of  Gregory  XIII,  came 
to  his  aid  and  established  a large  series  of  concerts 
which  took  place  under  Palestrina’s  direction.  Yet 
at  no  time  in  his  career  was  Palestrina  what  could  be 
called  a prosperous  man.  He  had  very  few  private 
pupils,  not  caring  to  spend  his  time  in  any  but  the 


BEFOBMERS  IN  MUSIC. 


17 


creative  branch  of  art.  Domestic  afflictions  were 
many  in  his  modest  life.  Of  his  four  sons,*  three, 
whom  he  had  carefully  instructed  in  music,  died  just 
as  they  were  beginning  to  evince  the  fact  that 
they  had  inherited  some  of  his  genius,  and  the  one 
son  who  survived  was  a dissipated  and  worthless 
man.  Yet  even  these  afflictions  did  not  abate  the 
ardor  of  his  creative  genius ; he  composed  with 
unflagging  zeal  up  to  the  very  month  of  his  death, 
and  in  looking  over  the  works  of  his  old  age  (he  died 
at  the  age  of  about  eighty)  one  finds  no  diminution 
of  power  or  lack  of  fire. 

Pope  Sixtus  y,  a man  of  considerable  musical  in- 
sight, appreciating  the  labors  of  Palestrina,  endeav- 
ored to  give  him  a samewhat  higher  position  in  the 
service  of  the  Vatican,  but  his  good  intentions  were 
frustrated  by  the  intense  and  active  jealousy  of  the 
singers,  so  that  the  semi-penury  of  Palestina’s  career 
remained  unabated  to  the  close. 

It  is  utterly  impossible  in  the  limits  of  a brief 
sketch  even  to  name  the  diflerent  compositions  of 
this  leading  ecclesiastical  composer  of  his  time.  He 
wrote  ninety-three  masses,  many  of  them  for  five, 
six,  or  eight  voices,  sixty-three  motettes,  mostly  for 
eight  or  twelve  voices,  and  offertories,  litanies,  1am- 

* Some  recent  evidence  has  been  discovered  that  the  com- 
poser had  but  three  sons  of  whom  two  died. 


18 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


entations,  hymns,  magnificats  and  madrigals  without 
number.  His  death  occurred  at  a timely  epoch  ; the 
zenith  of  the  old  contrapuntal  school  had  been 
reached,  a revulsion  was  about  to  take  place  in  favor 
of  romantic,  emotional  or  dramatic  music.  The  very 
year  of  his  death  (1594)  witnessed  the  completion 
of  the  first  opera. 

With  the  decease  of  Palestrina  counterpoint  began 
to  languish  in  Italy,  the  school  of  dramatic  music  re- 
lying rather  upon  homophonic  effects  for  success,  al- 
though no  regular  system  of  homophonic  treatment  had 
yet  been  formulated.  It  was  now  that  Germany  came 
forward  as  a musical  power.  That  country  had  always 
been  musical  in  one  sense ; the  people  had  always  en- 
joyed music,  and  even  if  no  great  musical  geniuses 
had  yet  been  produced,  a vast  number  of  musical 
talents  had  kept  the  sacred  fire  burning  briskly. 
It  will  be  unnecessary  to  do  more  than  give  a 
mere  synopsis  of  the  reformers  at  present.  The 
Minnesingers  were  the  first  of  the  German  musical 
reformers,  and  brought  secular  music  to  an  astonish- 
ing height  at  a time  when  even  the  Flemish  school 
of  composers  had  not  come  into  existence.  Yet  their 
influence  upon  the  art  of  music  was  not  a very  great 
one,  for  they  did  not,  like  the  Netherlanders,  estab- 
lish rules,  and  make  of  music  a fixed  science,  and 
they  were  too  much  given  to  improvisation.  Nev- 


BEFOBMEllS  IN  MUSIC. 


19 


ertheless  they  were  among  the  best  exponents  of 
the  natural  and  poetic  side  of  music  in  mediaeval 
times.  The  Meistersingers  were  not  reformers  in 
any  sense,  but  copied  as  far  as  they  could,  the  music 
of  the  Minnesingers,  while  following  the  laws  that 
had  been  laid  down  by  the  Flemish  composers. 

Martin  Luther  stands  out  as  the  first  great  musical 
reformer  of  Germany.  His  chief  musical  reform 
consists  in  the  recomdliation  of  the  classical  and  pop- 
ular schools  of  composition.  He  brought  counter- 
point to  the  people  by  having  their  most  popular 
songs  set  in  a worthy  musical  manner  for  the  service 
of  the  church.* 

Lucas  Osiander  (1586)  and  Hans  Leo  Hassler 
should  be  mentioned  as  reformers  in  music.  The 
innovation  which  they  made  may  seem  a very  slight 
one,  but  it  was  none  the  less  of  great  importance. 
It  was  the  giving  of  the  melody,  in  part  music,  to 
the  highest  voice,  .the  soprano.  To  us  it  seems 
self-evident  that  this  voice  should  carry  the  tune, 
but  it  was  not  so  with  the  early  composers.  They 
desired  to  make  the  most  of  their  discant,  and  the 
melody,  given  in  the  tenor,  in  a part-song,  served 
only  as  a peg  whereon  to  hang  the  counterpoint. 
The  great  host  of  chorale  composers  who  followed 
this  epoch  were  undoubtedly  a great  influence  in 

* See  Elsou’s  “History  of  German  Song,”  chapter  vii. 


20 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


German  music,  or  rather  in  Protestant  music  the 
world  over,  but  they  must  be  regarded  rather  as 
developers  than  reformers.  Of  the  reformers  in 
opera,  both  German  and  Italian,  we  shall  speak  in 
a separate  article.  Let  us  now  rather  turn  our  at- 
tention to  the  pioneers  in  instrumental  music.  The 
instrumental  music  of  mediaeval  times  was  crude 
enough.  In  the  secular  field  it  was  given  chiefly  by 
trumpets  and  drums  (which  were  par  excellence the 
instruments  upon  which  the  nobility  and  gentry 
might  practice)  and  harps  and  fiddles  ; but  in  the 
sacred  school  of  composition  there  was  a much  loftier 
instrument  to  deal  with  — the  organ.  It  was  in 
Venice  that  this  instrument  received  its  chief  devel- 
opment, but  the  names  of  the  inventors  of  the  earliest 
improvements  upon  the  organs  which  came  from  the 
east,  have  been  lost.  The  fact  of  the  organ  having 
come  to  Europe  from  the  Orient  in  the  middle  ages 
is  an  interesting  one,  for  since  the  organs  of  the 
ancient  world  (of  Imperial  Eome  especially)  were 
made  in  Alexandria  it  is  not  improbable  that  when 
the  night  of  the  dark  ages  descended  upon  Europe, 
some  of  the  musical  arts  which  flourished  under  the 
great  empire  took  root  in  a more  Oriental  civiliza- 
tion. It  was  a German  organist,  residing  in  Venice, 
named  Bernhard,  who  invented  pedals  for  the  or- 
gan, or  at  least  greatly  improved  them ; he  was 


BEFORMEliS  IN  MUSIC. 


21 


organist  to  the  doge  of  Venice  in  1470  or  1471,  and 
it  is  probable  that  his  improvements  were  made  at 
about  this  time.  In  this  century  also,  reed  pipes 
were  added  to  the  instrument,  greatly  adding  to  its 
variety  of  tone.  Venice  possessed  the  greatest  of 
the  early  organists,  paying  far  more  attention  to  the 
instrument  than  they  did  at  Rome,  where  the  church 
aimed  rather  to  develop  vocal  music.  Claudio  Me- 
rulo,  Andreas  Gabrieli  and  Giovanni  Gabrieli  were 
among  the  first  and  most  famous  of  these  organists, 
and  their  fame,  and  that  of  Willaert,  soon  attracted 
many  Germans  to  Venice  to  study  the  instrument  un- 
der them.  From  this  time  forth  Germany  seems  to 
have  displayed  a fondness  for  instrumental  music. 
Such  men  as  Schiitz  and  Hassler,  studying  with  the 
two  Gabrielis,  brought  back  to  their  native  land  an  ad- 
vanced style  of  instrumental  work,  which  soon  began 
to  leave  the  Italian  manner  and  become  distinctively 
German.  Soon  after  this  epoch,  that  is  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  we  find  the  greatest  organists  of  the 
world  in  Germany.  Organ  playing,  as  in  fact  almost 
all  instrumental  work,  had  thus  far  been  chiefly  an  aux- 
iliary of  song  ; but  now  the  German  organists  began  to 
elevate  it  to  the  rank  of  an  independent  art.  They  had 
already  won  a little  independence  for  their  instrument 
by  playing  plenty  of  interludes  and  postludes  to  the 
chorales  which  they  accompanied,  but  now  came  the 


22 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


first  great  reformer  in  this  field  of  musical  execution 
— Michael  Praetorius  — who  introduced  melodies 
upon  the  instrument  which  were  not  derived  from 
the  hymn-tunes,  hut  were  properly  constructed  and 
characteristic  organ  movements.  Praetorius  was 
born  in  1571  and  died  at  the  age  of  fifty.  He  de- 
serves mention  not  only  as  organist  but  as  one  of  the 
moat  voluminous  writers  on  music  of  his  day.  Maiiy 
a fact  relative  to  the  instrumental  customs  of  his 
time  which  would  otherwise  have  been  lost,  is  pre- 
served to  us  in  his  weighty  tomes.  There  were  other 
celebrated  organists  of  the  same  fiimily  name  (the 
German  name  was  Schultz)  contemporaneous  with 
this  author  and  musician,  but  he  only,  deserves  the 
name  of  being  the  first  who  developed  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  organ.  Samuel  Scheldt  (1587-1654) 
was  the  first  to  entirely  formulate  this  independent 
use  of  the  instrument ; his  Tahlatura  JSTova,  pub- 
lished in  1624,  may  be  looked  upon  by  concert 
organists  as  the  very  beginning  of  their  art.  Fol- 
lowing these  pioneers,  came  a whole  race  of  organists 
and  as  the  organ,  being  an  instrument  without  accent, 
is  best  suited  to  produce  polyphony,  where  accent  is 
reduced  to  a minimum,  the  science  of  counterpoint 
flourished  apace  in  Germany  during  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  while  it  was  gradually  de- 
clining in  Italy. 


REFORMEBS  IN  3IUSIC. 


23 


The  great  era  of  musical  reform  took  place  when 
the  emotional  idea  began  to  assert  itself  pre-eminently, 
and  skill  and  ingenuity,  although  still  recognized  as  iin- 
})ortant  factors  in  the  art,  no  longer  precluded  feeling 
and  expression.  This  occurred  between  1585  and 
IGIO,  and  this  period  may  be  called  the  renaissance 
epoch  of  music.  There  is  no  quarter-century  in  his- 
tory which  l)rought  forth  so  many  reforms  as  are  con- 
tained in  this.  As  the  old  achemists  in  endeavoring 
to  discover  the  })hilospher’s  stone,  brought  forth 
something  of  more  practical  value  — the  science  of 
chemistry  — so  the  Florentine  nobles  and  musicians. 
Count  Yernio,  Galilei,  Peri,  Caccini,  and  others,  in 
seeking  to  re-establish  the  ancient  Greek  drama  in 
all  its  splendor,  evolved  something  of  yet  greater 
value — the  Opera.  This  in  itself  was  a reform,  or 
rather  an  invention,  which  outweighed  anything  that 
had  been  done  in  music  since  the  establishment  of 
counterpoint  by  unknown  musicians,  the  foundation 
of  length-notes  by  Franco  of  Cologne,  or  the  discov- 
ery of  solfeggio  by  Guido  of  Arezzo,  and  it  l)rought 
many  other  reforms  in  its  wake.  The  old  chanting 
style  of  singing  was  no  longer  possible  and  as  a con- 
sequence the  longest  notes  of  the  old  system,  the 
maxima  (equal  to  eight  whole  notes),  and  the  Longa 
(equal  to  four  whole  notes),  soon  became  obsolete, 
while  the  brevis,  (two  whole  notes) , was  rarely 


24 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUEIC. 


used,  except  in  final  cadences.'^  Thus  the  semi- 
brevis  became  very  soon  the  unit  in  notation  and  the 
rhythms  began  to  simplify  themselves. 

The  writer  has  in  his  possession  a rare  volume  by 
Zarlino,  the  commentator  and  teacher  of  music,  dated 
1562,  in  which  all  of  the  old  complexity  is  still  in- 
culcated. The  rhythm  marks  at  this  time  were  to 
some  extent  tempo  marks  as  well,  and  had  a direct 
bearing  on  the  value  of  the  notes.  If  the  signature 
were  any  of  the  following,  (j),  C,  or  (f,  the  values 
of  the  notes  were  as  above  indicated,  and  the  rhythm 
was  called  equal  (or  imperfect^  as  some  of  the  writ- 
ers style  it)  ; but  if  the  mark  were  thus  0,  C,  0,  or 
O,  the  brevis  l^ecamc  of  the  value  of  three  semi-breves, 
and  each  of  the  above  signs  had  distinctions  in  the 
progressions  which  it  will  l)e  unnecessary  to  repro- 
duce here.  The  rests  were,  even  in  those  ancient 
days,  quite  akin,  in  notation  at  least,  to  those  of  our 
own  day,  but  also  changed  their  values  as  indicated 
above.  Roughly  stated,  the  first  scries  of  the  above 
signs  represented  2-2  or  4-4  rhythm  (it  is  utter  non- 
sense to  suppose  that  the  second  of  the  hieroglyphs 
was  ever  intended  fora  “ C,”  as  an  abbreviation  for 
“ Common  Time,”  as  is  so  erroneously  taught  by 
some  misinformed  musicians)  while  the  second  series 
represented  3-4  or  3-2  rhythm.  At  first  sight  it 


* See  article  on  Notation.'” 


BEF0H31ERS  LV  MUSIC. 


25 


seems  strange  that  the  latter  should  have  been 
called  Perfectum,  and  have  l)cen  preferred  by  many 
of  the  ancient  composers,  until  we  learn  that  the 
object  was  to  represent  the  Trinity  in  music,  and 
therefore  dear  to  the  heart  of  almost  all  of  the 
monkish  composers  of  mediaeval  times. 

With  the  rise  of  the  new  school  the  complexity 
vanished  and  our  modern  system  of  rhythmic  divi- 
sions began.  The  older  music  had  been  divided  only 
into  phrases,  but  the  operatic  music  necessitated,  and 
received,  the  l)ar  line.  The  clefs,  too,  began  to 
change,  and  the  almost  constant  use  of  the  F clef 
began  to  give  way  frequently  to  the  employment  of 
the  C clef,  and  even  the  G clef  began  to  appear.  As 
feeling  and  sentiment  began  to  be  the  most  impor- 
tant matter  in  music,  signs  of  expression  began  to  be 
used.  “ Adagio  ” was,  we  l)elieve,  the  first  of  these 
signs,  and  misspelt  “Adazio  ” at  that.  The  signs  of 
crescendo  and  diminuendo  were  not  long  in  following, 
and  as  a musical  form  was  soon  evolved  which  sym- 
metrically ended  as  it  had  begun,  the  words  “Da 
Capo  ” very  soon  obviated  the  necessity  of  reprinting 
the  first  part  of  every  aria. 

The  Opera  was  not  the  only  great  musical  produc- 
tion of  this  noble  epoch  ; the  oratorio  was  established 
almost  simultaneously  with  it,  for  while  the  Floren- 
tine nobles  were  zealously  laboring  to  establish 


26 


THE  BEAL3I  OF  MUSIC. 


secular  music  (and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that 
secular  music  had  its  origin  in  this  epoch,  spite  of 
the  previous  Avork  of  the  Troubadours,  Trouveres, 
and  Minnesingers),  an  equally  zealous  priest  — St. 
Philip  Neri  — was  laboring  to  give  to  sacred  music 
a more  attractive  and  popular  aspect,  and  his  weekly 
evening  services  in  which  a Scriptural  tale  Avas  given 
Avith  musical  adjuncts,  were  called  “ oratorios  ” from 
the  fact  that  they  Avere  not  given  on  the  altar,  but  in 
the  oratory  of  the  church. 

These  great  musical  forms  were  not  the  only  ones 
that  sprang  into  existence  in  this  period  of  great  mu- 
sical activity.  The  Cantata,  a very  vague  form  at 
first,  began  to  flourish.  At  first  it  Avas  merely  a 
cycle  of  songs,  generally  for  a single  voice,  but  it 
soon  became  more  elaborate,  although  not  more 
definite,  and  it  Avould  be  difficult  to  define,  even 
today,  exactly  Avhat  is  meant  by  the  word.  Its 
etymology  is,  however,  clear  enough,  it  having  arisen 
from  the  Avord  cantare,  “to  sing,”  and  therefore  sig- 
nifying merely  a “singing  piece.”  The  instru- 
mental forms  betrayed  no  less  activity  than  the 
vocal  at  this  time.  The  Fugue  {horn  fug  are  ^ “to 
fly,”  and  meaning  that  one  part  fleAV  before  the  other) 
was  a legacy  from  the  preceding  century,  and  had 
not  yet  become  a fixed  form  such  as  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  to-day  ; it  was  at  this  time  Avhat  we  should 


BEFOllMEBS  IN  MUSIC. 


27 


define  as  a canon,  for  in  a quaint  musical  dictionary 
of  the  time  we  read,  “A  Fuge  [.s’7c]  is  where  some 
of  the  parts  begin  a certain  aire,  and  the  other  parts 
begin  some  time  after  y^,  imitating  ye  first  and  repeat- 
ng  the  same  aire  throughout  all  the  parts.”  An  in- 
strumental companion  to  the  Cantata,  however,  was  at 
once  found  in  the  “ Suonata  or  “ sounding  piece  ” 
{{.e.  “ instrumental  piece  ”)  which  arose  al)out  this 
time. 

The  Partita  or  Suite  which  also  originated  about 
this  time,  was  at  first  a succession  of  pieces,  fre- 
quently dance  movements,  of  irregular  shape,  and 
quite  free  in  order  and  style,  although  generally  hav- 
ing a slow  movement  in  the  centre  and  a quick  one 
at  the  end.  It  took  a more  regular  shape  in  the  next 
century.  In  fact,  if  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  was  the  era  of  creation  and  invention,  we 
may  look  upon  the  eighteenth  as  the  epoch  of  elabo- 
ration ; the  rough  gems  which  were  unearthed  in  the 
former,  were  polished  in  the  latter  age. 

After  the  rise  of  Italian  opera,  the  suite,  the  old 
Sonata,  and  the  other  vocal  and  instrumental  forms 
of  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  music 
remained  stationary,  or  at  least  without  radical 
changes  for  a hundred  years.  The  art  of  counter- 

*This  important  form  has  been  traced  in  a separate  essay  in 
this  volume,  and  requires  no  additional  comment  here. 


28 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


point  gave  way,  in  Italy,  to  a use  of  harmony,  even 
though  the  laws  of  the  latter  science  were  not  yet 
formulated.  Intellectual  music  gave  way  before  the 
emotional  and  melodious,  all  over  the  civilized  world. 
Only  in  Germany  did  polyphony  resist  the  encroach- 
ments of  homophony,  and  a race  of  contrapuntists 
arose  which  was  even  superior  to  that  of  the  old 
Italian  school,  using  all  the  ingenuity  of  the  older 
masters,  but  adding  thereto  a tunefulness  and  an 
agreeable  style  which  were  unknown  in  other  days. 
The  labors  of  this  school  reached  a climax  in  the 
works  of  Bach. 

This  great  master  was  certainly  one  of  the  most  em- 
inent of  all  musical  reformers,  not  only  because  of  his 
establishment  of  rules  in  certain  kinds  of  music  that 
had  been  very  vague  before  his  time,  but  because  he 
invented  a new  instrument  and  because  he  made  the 
domain  of  composition  very  much  wider  than  it  was 
before  his  time.  We  have  alluded  elsewhere  to  the 
invention  of  the  tempered  scale,  the  first  thorough 
elucidation  of  which  was  due  to  Adrian  Willaert. 
Spite  of  the  evident  advantage  of  the  new  system  of 
dividing  the  octave  into  twelve  semitones,  custom 
was  stronger  than  practicality,  and  the  world  only 
partially  accepted  the  new  theory,  using  what  was 
called  a system  of  ‘ ‘ mean  tones  ” which  ])ut  a few 
keys  into  accord  with  the  natural  scale.  As  a con- 


HEF0B31EBS  IN  MUSIC. 


29 


sequence  compositions  were  very  restricted  in' their 
range  of  keys  and  modulations. 

In  a ])ook  by  John  Playford,  (in  the  possession  of 
the  writer) , three-fourths  of  a collection  of  some 
fifty  songs  arc  in  the  key  of  G-minor.  Such  keys 
as  B or  F-sharp  major  Avere  never  used.  It  Avas 
Bach  Avho  l)roke  the  fetters  of  the  natural  scale. 
The  compromise  called  “equal  temperament”  had 
been  sufficiently  explained  to  the  world,  but  no  one  had 
yet  practically  introduced  it  by  using  the  distant  keys 
Avith  the  same  freedom  that  the  keys  of  F,  C,  or  B- 
flat,  with  their  corresponding  minors  had  been  em- 
ployed. This  Avas  left  for  Bach  to  do,  and  right 
royally  he  did  it.  “ The  Well-tem})ered  Clavichord  ” 
(meaning  a clavichord  that  had  been  tuned  in  equal 
semitones)  has  a double  claim  upon  our  respect,  for 
it  is  not  only  a magnificent  collection  of  ])i*eludes 
and  fugues,  but  it  Avas  the  pioneer  in  establish- 
ing the  equality  of  all  keys,  as  it  presented  com- 
positions in  each  of  the  tAventy-four  keys,  major  and 
minor. 

Kegarding  the  effect  of  the  tempered  scale  as  com- 
pared Avith  the  scale  of  nature,  the  folloAving  facts, 
not  generally  knoAvn  to  amateurs,  may  be  stated. 
The  tempered  scale  is  close  enough  to  just  intonation 
not  to  shock  the  ear  of  any  musician  (especially  on  the 
pianoforte)  and  admits  of  modulations  freely  into  all 


30 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


keys.  The  interval  of  the  major  third  is,  however, 
an  exception  to  this,  and  causes  the  major  triad  to 
sound  somewhat  harsh.  On  the  organ  the  major 
triad  is  especially  disagreeable  when  tempered.  The 
tempered  scale  is,  after  all,  only  a compromise,  an 
escape  from  a difficulty,  and  while*  it  is  necessary 
upon  keyed  instruments,  is  adhered  to  far  too  faith- 
fully by  violinists  and  vocalists,  who,  when  unac- 
companied, could  obtain  far  richer,  mellower,  and 
finer  effects  by  keeping  to  the  scale  of  nature.  It  would 
be  well  if  vocalists  were  trained  to  sing  both  the  scale 
of  nature  and  the  tempered  scale,  and  were  to  prac- 
tice frequently  with  an  enharmonic  instrument.  The 
question  is  by  no  means  settled  yet,  as  everybody 
who  has  heard  the  delicious  sweetness  produced  by 
using  the  natural  scale  knows,  but  the  compromise 
practically  founded  by  Bach  was  a most  valuable 
one. 

Bach  was  also  a reformer  in  the  field  of  instrument- 
making, he  being  the  inventor  of  an  instrument  be- 
tween the  violoncello  and  the  viola.  This  was  a vio- 
loncello with  a treble  (E)  string  added,  and  was 
called  by  him  the  Viola  Pomposa,  or  the  Violoncello 
Piccolo.  He  wrote  a Sonata  for  the  instrument, 
which  has  become  obsolete.  In  theory  of  composi- 
tion Bach  was  also  prominently  active,  being  the 
first  to  thoroughly  reconcile  the  antagonism  between 


REFOBMEllS  IX  MUSIC. 


31 


the  old  church  modes  and  the  modern  harmonic  sys- 
tem. He  often  used  the  old  church  modes,  l)ut 
treated  them  in  a manner  more  consonant  with  the 
modern  liarmonic  principles  than  any  of  his  [)rede- 
cessors. 

In  the  musical  forms  Bach  claims  our  utmost 
homage,  nor  is  it  necessary  to  go  beyond  the  bounds 
of  historic  accuracy,  as  some  of  our  enthusiastic 
writers  have  done,  and  claim  for  him  an  influence  upon 
the  modern  sonata,  a field  in  which  he  is  not  to  be 
ranked  even  with  his  son,  Philip  Emanuel  Bach. 
He  none  the  less  established  and  reformed  the  in- 
strumental shapes  of  his  era  ; the  fugue  especially 
became  in  his  hands  a perfect  form,  the  gem  of  the 
instrumental  side  of  the  contrapuntal  epoch.  The 
fugues  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  had 
but  a vague  sha})e,  the  definitions  of  the  early  histo- 
rians pointing  rather  to  canonic  imitations  than  any- 
thing else,  as  the  foundation  of  fugal  music.  In 
England  during  the  lifetime  of  Handel,  every  instru- 
mentaP  piece  that  had  contrapuntal  imitations  was 
dubbed  “ a Fuge,”  and  even  in  Germany  no  clear 
definition  of  the  form  was  made  until  Bach  brought 
put  his  great  “Art  of  Fugue”  which  remains  a stan- 
dard for  all  time.  Bach’s  devotion  to  this  form  cost 
him  his  eyesight,  for  the  blindness  which  came  upon 
him  in  later  years,  has  been  traced  to  the  great  strain 


32 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


he  put  upon  his  eyes  in  bringing  forth  the  above- 
mentioned  work.  Finding  that  no  publisher  dared 
undertake  it,  he  engraved  the  copper  plates  of  the 
book  himself,  in  order  that  the  world  might  not  lose 
the  system  he  had  elaborated ; only  one  example  out 
of  many,  of  the  working  in  “ art  for  art’s  sake,”  which 
we  find  in  the  career  of  this  great  musician. 

The  Suite,  one  of  the  most  pleasant  forms  of  the 
contrapuntal  era,  received  thorough  attention  at  the 
hands  of  Bach.  The  Suite  is  not  as  expanded  a form 
as  the  Sonata  or  Symphony  but  it  is  a form  much 
better  suited  to  counterpoint  than  the  latter,  and  as 
it  was  less  severe  than  the  fugue,  it  speedily  became 
the  most  popular  instrumental  form  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  as  well  as  of  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth.  To  this  form  Bach  gave  a regular  suc- 
cession of  movements,  although  retaining  the  mo- 
notony of  key  which  was  an  element  of  weakness. 
He  invariably  gave  the  stately  Sarabande  the  central 
position  in  these  works,  thus  allowing  it  to  fulfill 
about  the  same  mission  that  the  Andante  does  in 
modern  Sonatas  and  concertos.  The  key  (as  already 
intimated)  was  the  same  in  each  of  the  six  or  eight 
numbers,  and  in  this  matter  Bach  was  very  rigid. 
Symmetry,  and  regularity  of  key,  was  with  him  a 
very  essential  part  of  the  musical  creed. 

Bach’s  Suites  will  always  remain  models  in  their 


BEFORBIEES  IN  MUSIC. 


38 


school,  and  his  fugues  in  a higher  field.  We  must 
add  that  these  works  brought  in  their  train  a very  im- 
portant reform,  a more  advanced  style  of  fingering. 
The  old  fingering  which  scarcely  used  thumb  or  little 
finger  at  all,  was  doomed,  when  these  Avorks  were 
composed,  and  in  the  Fugues  and  Suites  of  John 
Sebastian  Bach  we  find  the  beginning  of  modern 
piano  technique. 

Of  the  sons  of  Bach,  but  one  was  really  a reformer 
in  music,  and  this  Avas  the  one  Avho  stood  as  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  contrapuntal  and  the  har- 
monic epochs,  “the  father  of  modern  pianoforte 
playing”  — Philip  Emanuel  Bach — Avho  might  also 
be  very  justly  called  the  bridge  between  Bach  and 
Haydn.  It  A\^as  Philip  Emanuel  Bach  Avho  founded 
the  technical  principles  of  modern  pianoforte  music, 
Avho  gave  to  the  scales  a regular  fingering,  and  who 
first  brought  the  principles  of  homophony  to  the 
piano.  Pianists  must  rank  him  with  the  great  re- 
formers for  he  first  made  the  really  technical  study 
of  the  instrument  possible. 

Gluck,  of  course,  is  to  be  named  in  the  honorable 
list  of  those  Avho  brought  a neAV  significance  into 
music.  Although  his  triumphs  were  achieved  in 
France,  it  is  no  hyperbole  to  call  him  the  founder 
of  German  opera.  He  certainly  had  a herculean 
reform  to  effect,  an  Aug?ean  stable  to  clean.  When 


34 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


the  Italian  opera  arose,  it  was  a progressive  step, 
but  one  which  soon  deviated  from  the  right  path, 
and  became  a hindrance  to  true  art-development. 
Infatuated  and  intoxicated  with  the  emotions  which 
could  be  represented  in  the  new  style  of  music,  the 
operatic  composers  soon  made  a mistake  in  placing 
music  above  poetry  in  the  marriage  of  these  two 
arts,  and  instead  of  interpreting  the  emotions  of  a 
poem,  the  composer  would  often  force  the  verses  into 
a preconceived  shape,  whether  their  character  admit- 
ted of  it  or  not,  merely  aiming  at  musical  contrasts 
and  not  at  dramatic  fidelity.  Thus  arose  the  Aria 
form  of  the  ancient  composers  in  which  the  first 
theme  always  ended  as  well  as  began  the  composition. 
Gluck  first  attacked  this  form  as  untrue  to  nature 
although  affording  good  musical  contrasts,  and  went 
yet  further  in  demanding  that  the  accompaniment, 
which  had  hitherto  been  only  a support  to  the  voice, 
should  become  a part  of  the  picture,  and  aid  in  por- 
traying the  subtle'  meanings  of  the  words.  Excel- 
lently did  he  achieve  this  ; he  did  not  discard  melody, 
but  made  it  subservient  to  the  situation  represented, 
and  while  the  orchestra  was  still  a noble  support  to 
the  voice,  it  became  also  a part  of  the  dramatic  effect 
of  the  whole.  Such  intellectual  points  as  causing  a 
chorus  of  lost  spirits  to  end  upon  a chord  of  the 
diminished  seventh,  to  intimate  that  sin  was  a disso- 


llEFOliMEliS  m MUSIC. 


35 


nance  that  never  eoiild  be  dissolved,  began  to  appear. 
Sueb  graphic  touches  as  the  barking  of  the  dog 
Cerberus  (represented  on  contral)asses)  when  Or- 
pheus approached  the  gates  of  Hades,  and  the  mut- 
tering of  the  dark-toned  violas,  to  illustrate  the 
gloomy  soul  of  Orestes  the  matricide,  began  to 
dignify  and  enrich  the  accompaniment,  and  the  prin-' 
ciples  which  we  now  recognize  as  l)eing  the  funda- 
mental truths  of  operatic  composition  were  first 
formulated  and  proved  by  Gluck. 

While  Gluck  achieved  this  for  the  operatic  form, 
another  reformer  had  arisen  in  the  instrumental  field. 
This  was  Haydn — “ the  father  of  instrumental  form.” 
In  1759  he  had  produced  a little  Avork  for  eight 
instruments,  in  three  movements,  and  called  it  a 
“ Symphony.”  This  Avord  had  previously  been  a 
much  abused  one,  applied  indiscriminately  to  prelude, 
interlude  or  postlude,  but  it  Avas  uoav  to  have  a more 
definite  and  important  meaning,  as  an  orchestral  so- 
nata. Haydn  really  founded  the*  sonata  form,  al- 
though some  of  his  predecessors,  and  contemporaries, 
Kozeluch  for  example,  accidentally  touched  upon  the 
form  but  left  it  Avithout  discovering  its  great  signifi- 
cance. The  germ  of  the  form  in  fact,  may  be  dis- 
covered in  some  of  the  Avorks  of  Philip  Emanuel 
Bach,  which  Haydn  carefully  studied,  but  Avhich  Bach 
had  newer  either  elaborated  or  permanently  fixed. 


36 


THE  BEAL3I  OF  MUSIC. 


As  Haydn  was  the  first  to  see  the  adaptability  of  the 
sonata  form  to  the  uses  of  homophony  or  harmony, 
and  to  establish  its  usage  by  composing  hundreds  of 
works  (symphonies,  sonatas,  string  quartettes,  over- 
tures, etc.,)  in  this  shape,  one  would  imagine  that 
the  hair-splitting  theorists  who  delve  into  antique 
scores  and  merely  bring  forth  accidental  resemblances, 
would  be  silenced,  and  that  Haydn  might  take  his 
place  among  the  great  founders  and  reformers  on  the 
musical  roll  of  fame  without  cavil. 

Beethoven’s  reforms  extend  chiefly  into  the  field  of 
instrumental,  symphonic  music.  His  improvements 
of  the  sonata  form  as  applied  to  the  piano  cannot 
exactly  be  classed  as  inventions,  since  Haydn  and 
Mozart  had  given  forth  the  fundamental  principles, 
and  the  new  and  princely  edifice  was  built  upon  their 
foundations.  But  in  the  field  of  symphony  Beeth- 
oven brought  forth  many  new  things.  He  elevated 
the  humbler  instruments  to  a higher  plane  and  gave 
them  their  first  real  significance.  The  Kettledrums 
which  had  been  purely  rhythmic  before,  the  contra- 
basses which  only  gave  forth  the  fundamental  bass, 
the  horns  which  had  no  romantic  and  brilliant  work, 
were  all  given  positions  of  real  significance  in  his 
orchestral  structure.  In  his  second  symphony  he 
did  away  with  the  minuet  which  Haydn  had  used  so 
conscientiously  that  it  became  a fetter,  and  replaced 


REFORMETtS  IN  3IUSIC. 


37 


it  with  the  freer  tmd  more  beautiful  Scherzo.  In  pro- 
gramme music  he  brought  forth,  not  the  first  instru- 
mental tone-picture,  for  Bach,  Rameau  and  many  oth- 
ers had  preceded  him  in  this,  but  the  first  application 
of  objective  detail  to  symphony.  In  the  Ninth  Sym- 
phony, by  his  introduction  of  voices  he  opened  the 
door  to  the  Wagnerian  theories.  In  the  domain  of 
opera  and  song,  however,  Beethoven  cannot  be  classed 
as  a great  leader,  spite  of  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of 
“ Fidelio,”  “ Adelaide,”  and  other  isolated  instances. 
Of  the  reforms  of  Wagner  little  that  is  not  already 
known  can  be  said.  He  has  opened  an  entirely  new 
path  in  music,  yet  even  he  has  not  actually  been  the 
first  to  use  many  of  the  devices  which  the  world  credits 
him  with.  The  leit-motif,  for  example,  has  existed 
from  the  time  of  Mozart,  and  perhaps  before  it,  the 
dramatic  use  of  the  orchestra  comes  from  Gluck,  but 
certainly  Wagner  gave  to  these  devices  a new  sig- 
nificance. It  has  been  said  that,  if  Napoleon  had  not 
had  an  attack  of  indigestion,  he  would  have  won  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  and  the  entire  history  of  the 
world  would  have  been  changed.  Throughout  all  his- 
tory, the  careful  student  finds  slight  events  occurring, 
which,  in  their  results,  attain  colossal  proportions. 
Napoleon  III,  in  his  famous  History  of  Caesar,  main- 
tains that  these  ‘ ‘ ifs  ” are  not  of  the  importance  which 
many  historians  attach  to  them.  He  says,  in  sub- 


38 


THE  EEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


stance,  that,  while  a small  match  may  kindle  a large 
conflagration,  the  materials  for  the  fire  must  be  gath- 
ered together  by  a long  series  of  events.  The  single 
seemingly  slight  circumstance  which  may  cause  a 
great  war  or  a vast  schism  is  really  but  one  link  of 
a chain.  Although  the  truth  of  this  proposition  is 
self-evident,  the  “ ifs  ” of  history  are  none  the  less 
interesting,  as  they  are  often  the  only  visible  link  of 
the  chain . 

Musical  history  and  progress,  as  we  have  seen, 
also  has  its  “ifs,”  which  are  not  less  interesting 
than  those  of  the  political  or  diplomatic  field,  and  we 
can  best  sum  up  the  work  of  many  reformers  with  a 
few  of  these. 

“If”  Pythagoras  had  not  studied  science  with  the 
Egyptian  priests,  he  would  not  have  invented  the 
Greek  system  of  music,  which  afterward  was  adopted 
in  ancient  Some,  then  at  a later  epoch  by  Saints 
Gregory  and  Ambrose,  and  thus  has  extended  its 
influence  down  to  our  own  time.  In  such  a case, 
our  music  might  have  received  a greater  tinge  of 
Orientalism  (Hebraic  or  Arabic),  and  we  should  be 
singing  in  third  tones  or  quarter  tones  instead  of 
tones  and  semitones. 

“ If”  Hucbald,  the  monk  of  St.  Amands,  had  not 
(shortly  before  the  year  1000)  invented  the  crude 
system  of  harmony  called  Orgaiium,  the  prohibition 


liEFOBMEllS  IN  MUSIC. 


39 


against  consecutive  fifths  would  not  stand  so  rigidly 
in  our  text-books  of  harmony  today.  IIucl)ald’s 
system  consisted  entirely  of  consecutive  fourths  and 
fifths,  and  caused  a revulsion  of  feeling  against  their 
use  as  the  taste  in  music  became  more  refined. 

“If”  there  had  not  been  a hymn  to  St.  John 
written,  at  about  the  same  epoch,  with  the  first  note  of 
each  line  one  degree  higher  than  its  predecessor,  the 
syllables  of  the  vocal  scale  would  not  have  been 
invented,  and  solfeggio  might  have  remained  un- 
known. 

“ If”  Martin  Luther  had  not  been  a singer,  the 
lofty  chorales  of  the  Keformation  might  never  have 
been  written,  and  hymnology  today  would  be  vastly 
difierent. 

“If”  Palestrina  had  not  existed  at  a critical  epoch 
(in  1565)  to  write  a mass — the  Missa  Papae  ISIar- 
celli  — in  a competitive  examination  of  the  music  best 
adapted  for  the  Catholic  Church,  the  council  might 
have  banished  counterpoint  from  the  musical  service, 
chanting  would  have  been  adopted,  and  the  masses 
of  Bach,  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  Avould  never 
have  been  composed. 

“ If,”  in  1594,  in  Florence,  the  musical-literary 
society  which  aimed  at  bringing  back  the  palmy  days 
of  Greek  drama  had  been  composed  of  the  skilled 
composers  of  that  epoch,  the  Italian  opera,  instead  of 


40 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


being  dramatic  in  its  musical  effects,  would  have 
been  contrapuntal  in  its  character,  and  would  not 
have  made  its  way  so  rapidly  into  foreign  countries. 
In  this  case,  the  operas  of  Handel,  which  were  made 
chiefly  for  the  English  market,  would  never  have 
come  into  existence. 

“ If  ” Handel  had  made  a great  success  with  his 
operas,  he  would  probably  never  have  written  his 
oratorios. 

“ If  ” Rossini  had  never  existed,  the  operatic  forms 
of  Gluck  would  have  been  followed ; and  many  of 
the  reforms  which  Wagner  has  effected  would  have 
been  made  in  the  early  part  of  the  century. 

But  all  these  “ ifs  ” and  all  these  reforms  teach  us 
that  the  art  of  music  never  stands  still ; it  changes 
more  than  any  of  the  arts  from  age  to  age.  The 
music  of  Haydn  seemed  overladen  to  his  contempo- 
raries ; today  we  find  it  too  simple.  It  is  this  ele- 
ment of  change  which  is  the  surest  guarantee  of  the 
eternal  youth  of  our  art.  Scarcely  has  music  begun 
to  grow  conventional  in  any  branch  when  there  arises 
a reformer  who  gives  to  it  some  entirely  new  direc- 
tion, some  new  mode  of  construction,  unheard  of 
before,  and  at  once  a virgin  field  is  spread  again 
before  the  pioneer.  It  was  thus  with  Peri  and  Cac- 
cini,  with  Gluck,  with  Haydn,  with  Beethoven,  and 
with  Wagner,  and  will  be  so  in  the  centuries  to 


BEFOltMEllS  IN  MUSIC. 


41 


come.  Especial  honor  will  always  belong  to  those  who 
first  open  the  new  paths,  and  who  break  the  old  fet- 
ters, an  honor  which  should  the  more  readily  be  paid 
by  posterity  since  it  is  generally  denied  by  their 
contemporaries  ; and  in  thus  mentioning  a few  of  the 
greatest  we  have  brought  but  a slight  tribute  to  the 
host  of  Reformers  in  Music. 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  SONATA. 


Of  all  the  forms  of  instrumental  music  of  modern 
times,  the  sonata  form  may,  with  justice,  be  said  to 
hold  the  highest  rank.  It  must  however,  be  borne 
in  mind  by  the  reader  that,  in  speaking  of  the  sonata, 
we  do  not  allude  to  merely  the  piano  composition  of 
that  name,  but  all  those  compositions  which  have 
sprung  from  it,  such  as  the  concerto,  the  trio,  the 
string  quartet,  the  concert  overture,  the  symphony, 
etc.  As  the  essence  of  the  instrumental  and  vocal 
works  of  the  Middle  Ages,  after  the  invention  of  the 
barbarous  organum  of  Ilucbald  (which  was  merely 
an  accompaniment  of  empty  fifths  or  fourths  to  a 
given  melody),  was  crudely  contrapuntal,  it  is  nat- 
ural that  the  canon  (in  a very  free  and  vague  state, 
however) , should  have  been  the  chosen  form  of  many 
of  the  earliest  works,  and  that  the  sonata  should  have 
remained  for  the  development  of  comparatively  mod- 
ern masters.  Yet  the  sonata  owes  its  rise  to  the 
music  of  a very  early  epoch.  It  springs  from  the 
popular  instrumental  music  of  a very  distant  era. 

(42) 


THE  lilSE  OF  THE  SONATA. 


43 


While  the  severe  composers  of  mediaeval  times  were 
evolving  their  contrapuntal  studies,  the  people  in 
all  European  countries  were  enjoying  themselves 
with  a music  of  less  ambitious  and  more  jovial  char- 
acter. Dances  were  composed  of  marked  and  attrac- 
tive rhythm,  differing  essentially  from  each  other  in 
character,  and  capable  of  very  contrasted  effects.  In 
Spain  were  the  stately  Sai'ahande^  the  dignified  Pa- 
vane.,  and  the  more  rapid  Loure;  in  Italy,  the  gay 
Courante,  the  sedate  Chaconne,  and  the  quiet  Passa 
Mezzo;  in  England,  the  Hornpipe,  the  Country 
Dance,  and  others  embraced  in  the  general  Conti- 
nental appellation  of  Anglaise;  in  Germany,  the 
cheerful  dance  known  in  the  works  of  Mozart  and 
others  as  the  Danza  Tedesca;  in  France,  the  noble 
Minuet,  the  half-playful  Gavotte,  the  merry 
the  dashing  Passe-pieds,  and  the  pleasing  Pigaudon; 
and,  in  all  of  these  countries,  the  hearty  Gigue. 

France  was  the  dancing  country  par  excellence; 
and  it  soon  assimilated  to  itself  all  of  these  dances, 
and  many  besides.  From  these  dances  came  indi- 
rectly the  sonata ; for  from  them  was  formed  the 
ancient  Suite,  and  from  the  Suite  gradually  sprang 
the  sonata.  The  old  sonata,  as  used  by  composers 
before  the  time  of  Corelli,  may  be  dismissed  at  once, 
as  having  no  connection  with  the  modern  sonata. 


* The  original  of  the  Bourree. 


44 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Frescobaldi,  for  example  (born  1587),  writes  a so- 
nata in  one  movement,  and  in  no  part  of  it  attempts 
any  contrast  of  themes  or  of  styles.  The  fact  is  that, 
in  the  earlier  works,  a sonata  was  simply  a display 
piece  for  some  especial  instrument.  The  word  itself 
had  its  origin  in  the  verb  suonare,  “ to  sound  and 
suonata  simply  meant  a “ sounding-piece,”  as  the 
word  “ cantata”  from  {cantare)  meant  a “ singing- 
piece.”  The  two  terms  originally  had  no  significance 
as  to  form.  But  the  dances  above  alluded  to  had  a 
much  more  real  and  intimate  connection  with  the 
formation  of  our  modern  work . The  composers  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  particularly  in  Germany  and 
France,  soon  began  modelling  compositions  in  the 
dance  forms  which  were  so  popular.  In  France,  the 
court  patronized  and  enjoyed  this  kind  of  work  more 
than  the  more  learned  fugues  ; and  vocal  as  well  as  in- 
strumental gavottes  and  minuets  soon  appeared,  which 
were  not  intended  for  dance  use.  In  using  the  dance 
rhythms  as  disassociated  from  the  act  of  dancing,  a 
freer  treatment  became  possible  ; and  these  composi- 
tions began  to  differ  from  the  dances,  very  much  as. 
Chopin’s  Vaises  or  Rubinstein’s  Valse  Caprice  differ 
from  a waltz  by  Johann  Strauss. 

The  essence  of  form  is  contrast,  and  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  composers  soon  invented  a simple 
form  by  combining  two  or  three  dance-rhythms  of 


THE  BISE  OF  THE  SONATA, 


45 


different  character  into  a single  composition.  At 
length  the  Suite  crystallized  into  somewhat  regular 
form,  which  may  be  represented  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  Prelude;  2.  Allemande;  3.  Couvante;  4.  Sara- 
hande;  h.  Gavotte  ov  Minuet ;*  6.  Gigue.  If  this 
form  be  compared  with  the  modern  sonata,  it  will  be 
found  that,  althousfh  the  ^reat  charm  of  the  latter  — 
the  development  — is  absent,  yet  the  resemblance  of 
movements  is  marked.  The  sonata,  roughly  speak- 
ing, begins  with  an  intricately  constructed  first  move- 
ment, of  some  degree  of  rapidity,  which  may  be 
called  intellectual  in  its  character.  This  is  followed 
by  a movement  in  strong  contrast,  slow  and  emo- 
tional in  its  chief  characteristics.  This  is  again  suc- 
ceeded by  a bright  and  playful  movement,  and  a 
brilliant  display  movement  brings  the  work  to  a close. 

In  like  manner,  the  prelude  of  the  Suite  (as  in 
Bach’s  Suites  Anglaises^  contained  a degree  of  intel- 
lectual treatment;  while  the  Sai'obande  {\\kQ  the 
Andante  movement  of  a modern  work)  came  as  a 
calm  central  movement,  in  contrast  to  rapid  move- 
ments before  and  after  it.  The  Gigue  also,  which 
closed  the  Suite,  was  decidedly  a display  movement, 
being  more  rapid  in  tempo  and  often  more  elaborate 
in  construction  than  any  other  portion,  save  the  pre- 
lude . 


* Or  other  “ Intermezzi.” 


46 


THE  BEALM  OF  3IUSIC. 


There  were,  however,  some  sonatas  among  the 
earlier  works,  in  which,  although  they  were  intended 
merely  as  “ sounding  pieces,”  and  were  subject  to  no 
definite  law  of  form,  the  composers,  recognizing  the 
effects  gained  by  contrast  of  movements,  seemed  to 
arrive  at  a point  very  near  to  that  occupied  by  the 
Suites.  The  Sonatas  of  Henry  Purcell  (1658-1695) 
are  examples  of  an  intelligent  musical  nature  striv- 
ing after  an  effect  which  was  only  fully  attained 
more  than  a century  later.  His  twelve  violin  sonatas 
are  formed  with  two,  three,  and  four  movements 
each ; and  the  famous  Golden  Sonata  of  this  set 
contains  five  movements,  — Largo,  Adagio,  Oan- 
zona  allegro.  Grave  and  Allegro,  ail  in  the  key  of 
F,  save  one,  which  is  in  the  relative  minor.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that,  in  the  Suites  of  this  era,  the  same 
monotony  of  key  was  observed  throughout  the  entire 
work  ; and  it  is  the  more  singular,  when  we  recollect 
that,  in  the  fugues  of  the  same  time,  the  contrast  of 
tonic  and  dominant  was  so  readily  recognized,  and 
even  insisted  upon.  But  the  Suite  form,  even  with 
the  most  elastic  treatment,  was  not  to  exist  in  its  old 
shape  for  any  protracted  period.  Spite  of  the  fiict 
that  two  great  geniuses,  Bach  and  Handel,  used  it, 
the  constant  dance  rhythms,  unrelieved  by  any  free 
development,  were  sure  to  become  tiresome  to  the 
musical  mind. 


THE  BISE  OF  THE  SONATA. 


47 


It  has  l)ccome  customary,  with  many  commentators 
upon  the  sonata,  to  speak  of  Corelli  (1653-1713)  as 
the  father  of  the  sonata  hut,  although  we  have 
great  admiration  for  the  ingenuity  and  symmetry  of 
much  of  this  old  master’s  work,  we  can  only  discover 
that  he  adopted  so  varied  a style  in  his  different 
sonatas  that  he  has  in  one  or  two  instances  anticipated 
more  modern  effects.  He  was  not  greater  in  this 
respect  than  Purcell ; but,  in  some  of  his  sonatas,  we 
find  the  beginning  of  the  binary  form,  to  be  spoken 
of  later,  which  eventually  became  one  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  important  first  movement  of  the 
sonata.  But  he  seems  not  to  have  kept  steadily  at 
any  one  form,  and  his  efforts  at  reform  were  rather 
tentative  than  regularly  directed. 

With  Domenico  Scarlatti,  (1683-1757)  a slight 
advance  from  the  suite  was  made.  Of  his  more  than 
sixty  “ Sonatas,”  we  can  briefly  say  that,  while  they 
are  not  at  all  in  the  cyclus  form  of  the  modern  sonata, 
yet  they  exerted  a certain  influence  toward  it ; for 
they  contain,  in  embryo,  the  form  of  the  above-men- 
tioned allegro  movement,  the  most  important  part  of 
the  sonata,  having  not  only  the  division  of  this  move- 

* The  following  is  a list  of  some  of  the  old  sonata  composers  : 
Graziani,  Cesti,  Lully,  Purcell,  Corelli,  the  two  Scarlattis,  Knh- 
nau,  Buononcini,  Mattheson,  the  Bachs,  Handel,  Schobert,  Fres- 
cobaldi,  Alberti,  Galuppi,  Paradisi,  and  Wagenseil. 


48 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


ment  into  two  portions  as  in  the  later  “ first  move- 
ments” of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  but  a repetition  of  the 
first  division . But , among  the  old  masters  who  contri  b- 
uted  to  speed  the  coming  of  this  greatest  of  musical 
forms,  the  chief  was  Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  who  may 
be  called  the  father  of  modern  pianoforte  playing,  so 
often  has  he  anticipated  the  forms  and  effects  of  more 
modern  composers.  In  the  sonatas  of  his  father, 
John  Sebastian  Bach,  we  find  already  the  three 
movements  of  the  sonata  as  in  Mozart’s  day,  and  in 
somewhat  the  same  order  ;*  but,  when  we  examine 
the  form  of  these  movements  separately,  the  analogy 
ceases.  There  is  no  formal  relationship  of  themes, 
no  development,  no  coda.  In  the  sonatas  of  Philip 
Emanuel  Bach  (1714-1788),  however,  we  find  a con- 
trasting of  themes  and  a brilliancy  in  modulation,  even 
if  we  do  not  yet  find  the  development  of  themes  or 
their  careful  relationship  as  to  importance,  so  that 
the  principal  theme  may  be  readily  distinguished  from 
the  second  theme.  This  composer  was  especially  ele- 
gant in  his  rondos,  and  there  is  no  question  that  the 
careful  study  of  his  forms  by  Joseph  Haydn  led  to 
the  ideas  which  culminated  in  the  rise  of  the  sonata 
proper. 

Of  course,  the  sonatas  of  Philip  Emanuel  Bach 

*Kulmau  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  regularly  establish 
the  three-movement  form. 


THE  BI8E  OF  THE  SONATA. 


49 


contained  three  movements,  for  the  limiting  of  such 
works  to  this  number  had  now  become  almost  uni- 
versal ; but,  with  him,  we  find  a formal  arrangement 
of  the  order  of  these  movements,  the  first  and  last 
being  rapid  and  the  interior  one  slow.  It  will  be 
seen  from  this  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  the 
real  originator  of  the  old  form  which  was  known  as 
the  sonata.  We  find  composers,  through  a period  of 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  making  attempts 
to  bring  into  existence  a new  musical  form,  one 
which  by  its  contrasts,  its  symmetry,  and  the  treat- 
ment of  its  themes  and  parts,  should  become  the  best 
possible  shape  for  instrumental  music.  Occasion- 
ally, this  old  and  varying  form  approaches  that  which 
we  now  hold  as  our  own,  and  again  it  recedes  far 
away  from  it,  and  becomes  a fantastic  romance,  with- 
out definite  shape.  Sometimes,  as  with  John  Sebas- 
tian Bach,  it  is  chiefly  contrapuntal  in  character,  and 
shows  plainly  the  influence  of  the  fugue  form,  and 
again,  under  Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  it  becomes  homo- 
phonic,  and,  in  the  modern  sense,  melodiously  har- 
monic. A longer  research  into  the  older  works  would 
prove  unavailing.  Among  the  biographers,  one  will 
find  only  hostile  and  irreconcilable  statements  on 
every  hand.  One  states  that  Purcell  only  copied 
Corelli ; another  that  Scarlatti  was  the  true  founder 
of  the  sonata  ; a third  party  ascribes  to  Philip  Eman- 


50 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


uel  Bach  the  entire  honor  of  the  title ; and  the  par- 
tisans of  Kuhnau,  Paradisi,  Galuppi,  Wagenseil,  and 
others,  each  put  forth  their  claims.  From  all  these 
conflicting  statements,  one  fact  can  surely  be  de- 
duced ; — there  was  a persistent  and  steady  eflbrt 
being  made  toward  a new  form,  but  only  thus  much 
had  been  established  : the  new  sonata  was  to  consist 
of  a cyclus  of  movements  ; these  were  to  be  three  in 
number  ; of  these,  the  central  movement  was  to  be  in 
slow  tempo.  The  first  movement,  and  sometimes  the 
last,  was  to  be  in  binary  form.  That  was  all  that 
had  been  settled  up  to  the  advent  of  the  man  to 
whom  alone  belongs  the  title  of  being  the  father  of 
the  sonata, — Joseph  Haydn.  Mozart  improved  it, 
and  gave  it  a more  artistic  form  : Beethoven  brought 
it  to  its  highest  development : but  neither  of  these 
statements  invalidates  the  fact  that  with  Joseph 
Haydn  began  the  composition  of  the  true,  modern 
sonata.  Haydn  wrote  thirty-four  sonatas  for  piano 
alone  ; and  his  numerous  quartets,  symphonies,  etc., 
must  also  be  reckoned  among  his  contributions  to  this 
instrumental  form.  In  his  orchestral  works  and 
string  quartets,  he  fixed  the  shape  of  the  sonata  for 
all  time,  and  even  brought  it  very  near  to  its  highest 
development ; but,  in  his  pianoforte  sonatas,  he  was 
less  definite.  The  value  of  his  pianoforte  sonatas  as 
studies  of  form,  varies  greatly ; and  it  is  a curious 


THE  BISE  OF  THE  SONATA. 


51 


fact  that,  as  in  the  earliest  sonatas  of  Beethoven 
(op.  2,  for  example) , one  finds  the  influence  of  Haydn 
strongly  marked,  so,  in  the  later  sonatas  of  Haydn, 
one  finds  unmistakable  traces  of  the  influence  of 
Beethoven. 

That  Haydn  did  not  develop  the  form  of  his  piano- 
forte sonatas  as  he  did  that  of  his  quartets  and 
symphonies  is  easy  of  comprehension.  The  string 
quartet  and  the  orchestra  were  very  nearly  what  they 
are  today  ; but  the  piano  was  yet  comparatively  a 
primitive  instrument,  on  which  but  few  effects  could 
be  produced,  and  which  was  at  its  best  only  in  melody 
or  light  harmony.  It  was  scarcely  probable  that  the 
master  should  pay  great  attention  to  the  use  of  the 
highest  form  of  composition  when  writing  for  this 
tinkling  instrument.  Many  of  the  formal  phrases, 
pretty  cadences,  and  light  embellishments  of  Haydn’s 
Piano  Sonatas  (and  also  those  of  Mozart)  had  their  rise 
not  in  the  weakness  of  the  composer,  but  in  the  insuf- 
ficiency of  the  instrument  to  produce  grander  effects. 

Although  we  have  *said  that  Haydn  learned  much 
from  Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  it  must  also  be  stated  that 
there  was  a wide  difference  between  them  in  their 
treatment  of  themes.  With  Bach,  the  themes  burst 
forth  in  profusion  : he  has  a wealth  of  invention  that 
is  marvellous,  and  is  essentially  modern  in  many  of 
his  thoughts.  Haydn  is  fully  as  melodious  ; but  the 


52 


THE  BE ALM  OF  MUSIC. 


themes,  in  his  sonatas,  are  more  logically  treated, 
and,  in  his  later  sonatas,  the  second  theme  is  made  of 
proper  importance,  and  brought  into  fixed  relation- 
ship with  the  first  or  chief  theme.  The  weak  spot 
in  many  of  Haydn’s  earlier  sonatas  is  the  inconse- 
quential character  of  the  last  movement.  This  rarely 
becomes  a real  climax,  is  often  a minuet  rhythm,  and 
is  not  an  advance  on  the  finale  (the  Gigue)  of  the 
old  Suite.  His  constant  use  of  the  rondo  was,  as 
before  intimated,  a result  of  careful  study  of  the 
works  of  Philip  Emanuel  Bach.  The  difference  in 
time  between  the  birth  of  Haydn  and  that  of  Mozart 
was  twenty-four  years,  but  it  was  not  a period  of 
rapid  advancement  in  form ; and,  after  Haydn  had 
established  the  shape  of  the  sonata,  no  important 
changes  took  place  until  Mozart  began  to  make  his 
influence  felt.  It  is  said  that  Mozart  also  was  influ- 
enced in  his  forms  by  a Bach,  — not  the  great  Philip 
Emanuel,  but  his  younger  brother,  Johann  Christian 
Bach,  the  so-called  “ London”  Bach.  But  just  how 
far  this  influence  worked  upon  his  labors  in  the  field 
of  sonata  is  at  least  problematical.  The  shape  of  the 
Mozart  Sonatas  is  not  widely  different  from  that  of 
Haydn,  but  the  finales  are  generally  better  climaxes 
than  the  last  movements  of  the  older  master.  His 
rondos,  too,  have  less  formal  divisions,  and  become 
more  homogeneous  than  those  of  Haydn.  His  slow 


THE  ItlSE  OF  THE  SONATA. 


53 


movements,  are  somewhat  formal,  however,  in  their 
succession  of  set  eml)ellishnients,  trills,  runs,  and 
turns,  these  ornaments  being  the  result  of  the  stac- 
cato character  of  the  harpsichord  and  piano.  The 
slow  movement  was  almost  invariably  the  central  one 
in  Mozart’s  sonatas,  which  were  all  of  three  move- 
ments, filling  therefor  the  same  function  that  the 
Saixthande  had  done  in  the  old  Suite, 

And  now,  an  Italian  figure  enters  upon  the  field, 
a man  who,  although  less  forcible  in  his  musical 
thoughts  than  Mozart  or  Haydn,  yet  possessed  great 
clearness  of  expression,  and  never  swerved  from  a 
symmetrical  and  intelligible  form.  This  was  Muzio 
dementi.  This  composer,  although  he  did  not  orig- 
inate any  remarkable  additions  to  or  changes  of 
sonata  form,  yet  did  much  to  give  it  clearness  and  to 
make  it  permanent.  He  accepted  the  three-move- 
ment form  which  Haydn  had  established,  but  in  one 
instance  used  a four-movement  form  ; and,  in  another 
sonata,  he  attem[)ts  a touch  of  modern  “ programme 
music”  by  using  the  title  of  “Dido  Abandoned.” 
Even  in  this  case,  he  did  not  in  the  least  deviate 
from  his  set  form,  but  became  more  rigid  than  ever. 
It  is  a peculiarity  of  this  master  that  in  his  greatest 
works,  where  one  would  expect  freedom  and  ease  of 
style,  he  becomes  a veritable  schoolmaster,  and  gives 
canons,  direct  and  inverted,  and  other  touches  of 


54 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


learning  rather  than  of  emotion.  The  ‘‘Abandoned 
Dido,”  in  all  her  grief,  is  kept  in  as  dry  a form  as  if 
she  were  an  exercise ; but,  strange  to  say,  in  the 
exercises  which  were  written  for  purposes  of  instruc- 
tion, there  is  far  less  of  pedantry  and  far  more 
geniality  and  spontaneity.  Among  the  composers  of 
this  time  must  be  named  Dussek,  who  had  not 
dementi’s  sterility,  and  yet  kept  as  thoroughly 
within  the  bounds  of  form.  His  melodious  and  at 
times  very  interesting  works,  together  with  those  of 
Hummel,  have  been  too  long  suffered  to  remain  upon 
the  shelf.  They  should  be  more  frequently  heard  in 
concerts  and  drawing-rooms.* 

And  now,  with  the  central  figure  of  sonata  history, 
we  draw  to  a close ; Beethoven  had  little  to  do  with 
the  rise  of  the  sonata,  but  everything  with  its  culmi- 
nation. It  was  natural  that  he  should  have  used  the 
four-movement  form  in  his  sonatas,  although  Haydn 
and  Mozart  had  only  used  it  in  their  string  quartets 
or  orchestral  works  ; for  with  Beethoven  everything 
was  handled  in  an  orchestral  manner,  and  many  of 
his  sonatas  could  easily  have  been  turned  into  sym- 
phonies or  sinfoniettas.  With  Beethoven  came  free- 

* Hummel  can  most  especially  be  recommended  to  the  con- 
scientious student  as  a sure  road  to  a clear  technique.  He  is 
most  moderate  in  his  use  of  the  pedal,  and  a good  finger-action 
is  certain  to  result  from  an  employment  of  his  piano  works  in 
tuition  and  practice. 


rilE  mSE  OF  THE  SONATA. 


55 


(lorn  of  form  into  the  hitherto  formal  sonata.  But 
it  must  be  l)orne  in  mind  that  he  did  not  abolish 
any  form,  but  sim})ly  enlarged  its  limits.  In  other 
words,  he  ruled  the  form,  but  was  not  ruled  by  it. 
In  Beethoven's  sonatas,  one  sees  clearly  mirrored 
the  different  epochs  of  his  career,  the  three  classes  or 
periods  into  which  German  commentators  have  divided 
his  works.  The  Sonatas,  opus  2,  have  a clear  sym- 
metry that  is  inspiring,  but  are  plainly  an  outcome 
of  Haydn’s  teaching,  and  show  us  Beethoven  filtered 
through  Haydn.  Opus  7 already  shows  freedom  of 
thought  in  the  limits  of  strict  form,  and  in  opus  13, 
the  Sonata  Pathetique,  one  finds  that  the  form  is  no 
longer  a hindrance,  but  rather  an  aid  to  the  highest 
expression  ; and  this  clearness  of  form  and  wealth  of 
expression  is  continued  up  to  the  four  latest  sonatas. 
But  in  these  latter,  Beethoven  begins  to  strive  beyond 
the  form  he  himself  has  adorned.  Not  that  these 
works  are  without  form  — on  the  contrary,  one  can 
find  in  them  continuity,  fitness,  and  logical  sequence, 
— but  they  are  nevertheless  no  longer  in  the  set, 
sonata  limit,  and  have  opened  the  door  to  sonatas  by 
modern  composers  where  but  three  ideas  rule,  — 
continuity  of  motives,  thematic  development,  and 
contrast.  Beethoven  brought  the  Symphonic  Minuet 
(which,  by  the  way,  had  long  ceased  to  be  merely  a 
dance)  into  the  sonata,  but  not  as  Haydn  often  did 


56 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


in  the  “ minuet  and  variations”  form,  finale,  but  as 
one  of  his  two  interior  movements.  He  afterwards 
gave  this  place  to  the  scherzo,  which  was  his  in- 
vention (although  Haydn  had  used  two  unimportant 
ones  in  string  quartets  previously)  and  in  which  he 
was  able  to  display  all  his  quaint  humor  — one  of  his 
remarkable  characteristics — and  also  to  make  an  ex- 
cellent contrast  with  the  great  earnestness  of  his  slow 
movements.  He  also  gave  the  variation  form,  as  a 
sonata  movement,  a far  deeper  significance  and  a 
more  important  place  than  it  had  held  under  Haydn’s 
treatment. 

^Ve  now  find  the  form,  which  grew  painfully  and 
slowly  out  of  the  old  dances  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
in  its  fullest  development,  — a perfect  medium  of 
musical  expression,  a symmetrical  combination  of  the 
emotional  and  the  intellectual.  It  is  true  that  other 
sonata  composers  would  form  an  interesting  study 
to  our  readers.  IVeber,  Schubert,  Mendelssohn* 
Schumann,  Brahms,  Bennett,  Liszt,  and  others,  have 
written  sonatas  which  deserve  analysis.  But  these  are 
all  more  or  less  tinged  with  each  composer’s  charac- 

* Meiidelssolni’s  Organ  Sonatas  are  in  the  “ Old  Sonata,”  free 
stjde.  Schumann  led  to  a rather  formless  free  stjde  in  the  mod- 
ern sonata,  and  was  followed  in  this  hj'  Liszt.  The  two  last- 
named  composers  use  an  almost  continuous  development  in  their 
sonatas,  and  rely  more  upon  this  than  on  a fixed  relationship  of 
themes. 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  SONATA. 


57 


teristics,  and  are  interesting  rather  because  of  this 
than  because  they  have  exerted  an  influence  upon 
sonata  form.  With  Beethoven,  we  find  the  sonata 
reaching  its  culmination,  and  therefore  his  great  name 
appropriately  closes  the  history  of  the  Kise  of  the 
Sonata, 


LAW  AND  MUSIC. 


The  connection  between  these  two  subjects  is  much 
more  intimate  than  the  general  reader  may  imagine  ; 
for,  from  times  which  may  almost  be  called  prehis- 
toric, the  art  of  music  has  called  forth  statutes  and 
strange  legal  enactments.  The  earliest  of  these  are 
to  be  sought  for  in  Egypt,  where  musicians  were  held 
in  very  slight  esteem,  and  were  obliged  by  law  to 
dwell  in  certain  quarters  of  each  city,  not  unlike  the 
Ghettos  in  which  the  mediaeval  rulers  imprisoned  the 
Jews. 

The  ancient  Egyptian  musician  was  also  obliged  to 
train  his  children  in  the  art ; and  the  caste  was  thus 
kept  distinct,  and  transmitted  from  father  to  son  for 
centuries . 

China,  in  the  earliest  times,  affords  striking  exam- 
ples of  legislation  regarding  the  art  of  music.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  use  of  music  in  China,  four 
thousand  years  ago,  was  a very  moral  and  commend- 
able one.  Useful  precepts,  valuable  instructions  in 
science,  art,  agriculture,  etc.,  and  historic  legends, 
were  all  preserved  or  imparted  by  means  of  song. 

(58) 


LAW  AND  3IUSIC. 


5ii 

The  rules  governing  the  making  of  musical  instru- 
ments ( founded  on  correct  acoustical  principles  ) 
were  also  laid  down  by  law.  When,  therefore,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  Christian  era,  the  usurping  Tschin 
dynasty  ( from  which  China,  or  more  properly 
Tschina,  takes  its  name  ) came  into  power,  they  di- 
rected their  greatest  energy  against  the  art  of  music, 
which  kept  alive  in  the  Chinese  patriotism,  heroism, 
and  devotion  to  the  dynasty  which  had  ruled  their 
forefathers.  The  old  songs  were  abolished  by  law,  a 
new  musical  system  was  established,  and  all  the  old 
instruments  were  called  in,  to  be  remodelled  accord- 
ing to  it.  To  retain  or  conceal  any  of  the  old  instru- 
ments or  musical  manuscripts  was  punished  by  death  ; 
yet  many  a Chinese  musician  braved  this  doom  by 
burying  his  treasures  or  casting  the  more  imperishable 
instruments,  such  as  the  King,  or  Chinese  musical 
stones,  into  some  river,  whence,  centuries  after,  they 
might  be  ( and  were  ) rescued  intact.  Chinese  laws 
regulate  also  the  religious  music  used  at  the  Feast  of 
the  Ancestors, — the  most  solemn  of  all  Chinese  festi- 
vals,— and  direct  at  which  point  of  the  compass  each 
instrument  shall  be  placed,  and  what  the  proportions 
of  the  instruments  shall  be  to  each  other. 

Of  the  Hebraic  laws  concerning  music  and  musical 
instruments,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  speak.  The 
Scriptures  are  explicit  enough  upon  the  subject,  and 


60 


THE  BEALM  OF  HUSIC. 


even  the  construction  of  trumpets  becomes  the  subject 
of  a divine  law. 

In  Athens  and  ancient  Greece  generall}',  music  was 
left  rather  to  the  law  of  public  opinion  than  to  special 
legislation;  yet,  even  here,  we  find  enactments  rela- 
tive to  the  formation  of  choruses.  The  founders  of 
the  chomses  which  played  so  important  a part  in  the 
Greek  tragedies  ( for  the  Greek  play  was  not  unlike 
the  modern  opera  ) were  nominated  by  the  archons, 
or  chief  magistrates,  and  were  obliged,  if  they  ac- 
cepted the  office,  to  provide  suitable  food,  lodging, 
raiment,  and  instruction  for  the  singers,  and  espe- 
cially to  guard  against  their  eating  anything  pre- 
judicial to  rthe  voice.  From  chance  expressions  in 
the  works  of  several  Latin  and  Greek  writers,  we 
learn  that  pickles  and  certain  highly  spiced  pre- 
serves were  to.  be  avoided  by  vocalists,  and  that 
lying  on  the  back,  with  plates  of  lead  on  the 
stomach,  was  esteemed  beneficial. 

In  Eome,  the  earliest  musical  laws  refer  to  funeral 
music,  and  regulate  the  number  of  fiute  players  who 
shall  participate  in  the  ceremonies.  Evidently  this 
law  was  caused  by  a growing  extravagance  in  Eoman 
obsequies. 

The  fiute  players  themselves  were  the  cause  of 
many  other  laws,  for  they  formed  one  of  the  most 
important  guilds  of  ancient  Eome  ; and,  as  they  Avere 


LAW  AND  MUSIC. 


61 


necessary  at  all  religious  rites,  holding  a position 
similiar  to  that  of  the  organist  in  modern  times,  it 
was  found  advisable  to  enact  laws  relative  to  their 
privileges,  and  to  prevent  them  from  arrogantly 
taking  advantage  of  their  power.  Naturally,  in 
Rome  as  well  as  Greece,  there  were  laws  govern- 
ing the  musical  contests  at  the  great  games  ; but  these 
come  rather  under  the  head  of  rules  and  regulations 
than  of  statutory  enactments. 

When  the  pagan  rites  were  in  their  decline,  laws 
relating  to  the  advancement  of  music  in  the  tem})les 
were  made.  The  Emperor  Julian,  called  the  Apos- 
tate, keenly  observed  that  music  was  an  important 
factor  in  the  Christian  service,  while  the  pagan  cer- 
emonies had  few  good  singers,  and  1)ut  little  instru- 
mental music  of  a worthy  character.  He  issued  edicts 
to  form  a conservatory  at  Alexandria,  to  which  he 
intended  to  send  the  Roman  youth  to  be  educated  in 
music.  He  fixed  prizes  and  remunerations  for  those 
who  should  excel  in  their  studies,  and  the  expenses 
of  each  student  were  to  be  borne  by  the  State. 
The  intention  was  to  build  up  a race  of  singers, 
to  give  an  added  charm  to  the  worship  of  the  gods ; 
but,  before  the  edicts  came  into  force,  the  emperor 
died,  and  the  scheme  was  abandoned. 

The  earliest  laws  of  the  Christian  emperors  regard- 
ing music  related  to  the  asylums  of  the  Church, 


62 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


which  were,  in  fact,  conservatories  of  music,  where 
orphan  children  were  instructed  in  religion  and  in 
music.  In  fact,  many  of  the  early  popes  and  saints 
were  to  some  extent  music  teachers,  and  the  doc- 
trine of  sparing  the  rod  was  by  no  means  followed 
in  their  training,  since  the  switches  which  aided  in 
the  instruction  of  the  young  musicians  are  still  shown 
in  some  of  the  older  Italian  monasteries. 

After  the  music  of  the  early  Christian  Church  had 
been  established  by  law  and  custom,  there  was  still 
legislation  necessary  to  firmly  suppress  the  rivalries 
which  sprang  up  between  different  schools  of  church 
music,  and  this  legislation  was  by  no  means  always 
ecclesiastical.  Charlemagne,  for  example,  sustained 
the  Gregorian  chant  against  the  Ambrosian  by  issu- 
ing edicts  decreeing  that  the  former  only  should  be 
used  in  the  churches  of  France. 

The  next  important  legislation  on  the  subject  of 
music  in  Europe  was  not  so  innocent.  It  was  the 
suppression  of  the  minnesingers  of  Germany,  because 
these  noble  poet  musicians  had  satirized  Church  and 
priest  too  freely.  Attached  to  these  knights  were 
musicians  of  a humble  estate,  who  played  their  ac- 
companiments and  copied  down  the  verses  or  melodies 
of  their  noble  patrons.  These  were  called  jinglers, 
or  jongleurs,  and  gave  rise  to  the  modeim  tribe  of 
jugglers,  for  they  often  added  to  their  slender  income 


LAW  AND  MUSIC. 


T)3 

by  exhibiting  tricks  of  sleight  of  hand,  or  performing 
bears  or  monkeys.  It  went  hard  with  the  pooi-yoji- 
gleurs  after  the  suppression  of  troul>adours  and  min- 
nesingers, for  the  rulers  almost  everywhere  made 
laws  against  “travelling  musicians  and  vagabonds,” 
and  they  could  be  arrested  at  the  will  of  any  country 
justice,  and  sent  to  jail  for  a long  term.  In  some 
countries,  this  law  (although  long  since  obsolete)  has 
never  been  repealed,  and  is  still  on  the  statute  books. 
It  would  make  an  interesting  study  to  ascertain  how 
many  of  these  ancient  laws  still  remain  in  existence. 
In  England,  a man  was  recently  arrested  on  a nearly 
forgotten  law,  forl)idding  driving  through  the  streets 
during  church  time.  In  the  same  country,  during  the 
early  part  of  this  century,  a convicted  murderer  es- 
caped all  punishment  by  claiming  trial  by  combat ; 
that  is,  that  his  innocence  or  guilt  might  l)e  i)roven  by 
a duel  with  the  attorney-general  (the  latter  emphatic- 
ally declining  the  test) , and  it  was  found  that  the 
right  of  demanding  such  a duel  had  never  been  re- 
pealed. The  English  laws  respecting  the  Christmas 
street-singers,  or  “ waits  ” were  also  in  existence  until 
very  recently.  Originally,  these  were  court  pages, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  patrol  the  court  at  night,  and  pro- 
claim the  hour  with  a pious  song.*  The  pay  of  such 

* The  custom  recently  existed  in  Nuremberg,  and  is  finely 
used  by  W'agner  in  his  opera,  The  Mastersingers  of  Nuremberg. 


64 


THE  BEAL3I  OF  3IUSIC. 


a wait  is  thus  quaintly  described  by  an  old  English 
writer  of  the  time  of  Edward  IV  : ‘ ‘ He  eateth  in  ye 
halle  with  mynstrieles,  and  taketh  at  nyghte  a Ioffe, 
a galone  of  ale,  and  for  Sommere  ij  candles  pich,  a 
bushele  of  coles ; and  for  Wintere  nights  a half  Ioffe 
of  bread,  a galone  of  ale,  iiij  candles  pich,  a bushele 
of  coles.  . . . Iffe  he  be  syke,  he  taketh  twoe  loves, 
ij  messe  of  great  meat,  one  gallone  of  alle.” 

One  would  imagine  that  the  many  gallons  of  ale 
would  eventually  have  hurt  his  voice. 

The  modern  waits  pursue  their  calling  about  Christ- 
mas time  in  England.  Chambers  speaks  of  the  law 
concerning  them  thus:  “Down  to  the  year  1820, 
perhaps  later,  the  waits  had  a certain  degree  of 
official  recognition  in  the  cities  of  London  and  West- 
minster. In  London,  the  post  was  purchased  : in 
Westminster  it  was  an  appointment,  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  high  constable  and  the  Court  of  Burgesses. 
A police  inquiry  about  Christmas  time  in  that  year 
brought  the  matter,  in  a singular  way,  under  public 
notice.  Mr.  Clay  had  been  the  official  leader  of  the 
waits  for  Westminster  ; and,  on  his  death,  Mr.  Monro 
obtained  the  post.  Having  employed  a number  of 
persons  in  different  parts  of  the  city  and  liberties  of 
Westminster  to  serenade  the  inhabitants,  trusting  to 
their  liberality  at  Christmas  as  a remuneration,  he 
was  surprised  to  find  that  other  persons  were,  un- 


LA  ir  AND  AW  SIC. 


65 


authorized,  assuming  the  rights  of  i)laying  at  night, 
and  making  ap})lications  to  the  inhabitants  for  Christ- 
mas boxes.  Sir  R.  Baker,  the  police  magistrate, 
promised  to  aid  Mr.  Monro  in  the  assertion  of  his 
claims  ; and  the  result  in  several  police  cases  showed 
that  there  really  was  this  ‘vested  right’  to  charm  the 
ears  of  the  citizens  of  Westminster  with  nocturnal 
music.” 

At  present,  of  course,  the  business  of  Christmas 
wait  is  free  to  all. 

In  Germany  there  have  been  several  laws  regard- 
ing drum  and  trumpet  music  ; and  at  one  time  there 
was  an  actual  guild,  or  fraternity  of  truni[)eters,  exist- 
ing under  the  protection  of  the  law.  The  last  relic 
of  these  laws  was  repealed  in  Leipzig  some  half-cen- 
tury ago.  It  forbade  the  use  of  drums  at  any  ball 
where  no  nol)leman  or  person  of  official  station  was 
present.  The  people  used  to  fill  the  letter  of  this 
law  by  inviting  some  poor  sub-professor,  who  was 
glad  enough  to  have  the  opportunity  to  join  the  fes- 
tivities ; but  it  is  curious  to  find  the  noisy  drum  thus 
ranked  as  a prerogative  of  the  aristocracy. 

The  most  important  of  the  French  laws  relative  to 
music  are  those  establishing  the  Conservatoire  at 
Paris,  those  regulating  musical  pitch,  those  giving 
subventions  to  the  opera,  and  those  protecting  operatic 
composers  by  giving  them  a royalty  upon  every  per- 


66 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


formance  of  their  works.  The  last-named  law  is 
especially  important,  and  should  be  imitated  by  all 
other  countries.  It  was  first  enacted  in  favor  of 
dramatists  iu  1697,  although,  even  in  1653,  there  is 
an  instance  of  a dramatist  (Quinault)  receiving  a 
royalty.  The  rate  at  first  was  one-ninth  for  pieces 
of  five  acts  and  one-twelfth  for  pieces  of  three 
acts,  after  the  regular  expenses  of  the  theatre  had 
been  paid  from  the  receipts.  This  was  vastly  dif- 
ferent from  the  German  treatment  of  both  drama- 
tist and  composer,  i.  e.,  leaving  them  entirely  at  the 
mercy  of  the  manager.  In  the  matter  of  fostering 
and  encouraging  their  composers,  strange  to  say,  no 
nations  are  so  careless  as  Germany  and  Italy.  Amer- 
ica, France,  England,  and  Russia  have  been  to  the 
pinched  composers  of  the  above  countries  veritable 
Eldorados. 

Perhaps  this  is  a legitimate  result  of  a law  of  de- 
mand and  supply,  and  talent  must  be  most  honored 
in  those  countries  where  it  is  rarest ; but  still  it 
seems  probable  that  something  must  be  lacking  in  the 
true  art-culture  of  a people  who  allow  their  greatest 
men  to  remain  on  the  border  land  of  starvation. 

Let  us  briefly  look  over  the  list  of  a few  of  the 
more  prominent  names,  and  see  if  we  can  prove  our 
statement.  We  begin  with  Beethoven,  who  was  at- 
tacked during  his  earlier  career  with  an  especial  bit- 


LAW  AND  MUSIC. 


r>7 

terness  by  the  critics,  who  evolved  such  sentences 
(yerhatim)  , as  these  : — 

“ Beethoven  piles  difficulty  upon  difficulty  for  the 
mere  sake  of  displaying  his  musical  knowledge  ; and, 
after  all,  it  is  a crude  and  undigested  knowledge 
which  he  shows.” — “Beethoven  cannot  write  varia- 
tions. lie  does  not  understand  how  to  choose  a proper 
theme,  and  when  chosen,  does  not  understand  how 
to  treat  it  to  best  advantage.  Let  him  study  how 
to  write  variations,  from  Mozart.”  Beethoven’s  life 
was  an  active  one  ; he  had  no  expensive  habits  ; in 
his  latter  days  he  was  world-renowned ; yet  he  left 
behind  him  a fortune  of  about  $1500  only. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  thought  from  the  above  criti- 
cisms that  Mozart  was  a more  popular  success  : so 
indeed  he  was,  but  it  never  (in  Germany)  could  crys- 
talize  into  money.  He  received  unlimited  amounts 
of — approbation.  His  salary  in  Vienna  amounted 
to  800  gulden  (about  $500)  i)cr  annun.  The  papers 
of  his  day  praise  him  for  declining  other,  better  offers 
elsewhere ; but  the  thought  that  he  should  be  pecu- 
niarily rewarded  or  assisted  did  not  enter  the  heads 
of  his  eulogists. 

Haydn,  after  being  Porpora’s  boot-black  in  his 
youth,  became  Esterhazy’s  lackey  in  his  manhood, 
and  would  have  continued  as  a sort  of  u})per  servant 
until  his  death,  if  he  had  not  chanced  to  go  to  England, 


68 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


and  been  received  there  with  the  homage  which  that 
unmusical  nation  gave  (especially  in  the  last  cen- 
tury) to  men  of  musical  genius.  Then^  on  his  return 
to  his  master,  he  begged  that  he  might  not  be  ad- 
dressed as  a servant  (in  the  third  person) , any  more, 
and  the  prayer  was  graciously  granted. 

Lortzing  was  a success  in  his  day.  His  operas 
were  the  delight  of  all  Germany ; but  that  did  not 
bring  him  anything  more  solid  than  fame.  When 
he  died,  there  was  not  money  enough  left  to  his  fam- 
ily to  bury  him. 

Schubert  was  left  in  the  same  pitiable  condition, 
even  when  his  songs  became  popular  throughout  the 
nation. 

Of  the  more  recent  composers,  Goetz  died  miser- 
ably poor,  and  Franz,  after  years  of  poverty  in  Halle, 
is  relieved  and  made  independent  by  subscriptions 
chiefly  from  England  and  America.  In  Halle,  when 
the  latter  composer  was  engaged  as  capellmeister,  it 
was  expressly  stipulated  that  he  was  not  to  perform 
any  of  his  own  compositions.  Instances  might  be 
multiplied,  were  it  necessary  ; but  the  fact  is  too  pal- 
pable that,  in  Germany,  the  dramatist,  poet  and 
musician  are  totally  unprotected,  and  suflfer  more 
than  in  other  nations. 

The  remedy  for  such  an  unjust  state  of  affairs  is 
easy  to  find.  France  has,  as  we  have  seen  above. 


LAW  AND  3IUSIC. 


69 


already  found  it.  Secure  to  the  composer,  author  or 
dramatist  the  profit  of  his  own  brains  ! Let  the  gov- 
ernment step  in  between  manager,  publisher,  and 
writer,  and  prevent  the  two  first-named  enriching 
themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  last. 

Had  Lortzing  written  his  operas  in  France,  he 
would  have  died  a millionaire  instead  of  a beggar. 
After  Mozart  had  died  in  poverty,  his  son’s  needs 
were  relieved  by  receiving  (years  after)  the  com- 
poser’s tantieme  from  Paris,  while  Germany  contin- 
ued in  serene  enjoyment  of  the  composer’s  works, 
forgetful  of  all  obligations.  It  may  be  said,  en  pas- 
sant, that  Benedix,  Grillparzer,  and  other  well- 
known  German  men  of  letters,  would  have  been 
affluent  instead  of  half-starved,  had  the  French  law 
extended  to  Germany. 

But  France  does  even  more  : it  recognizes  the  duty 
of  the  government  to  assist  genius  that  has  not  ar- 
rived at  the  stage  of  productiveness  which  can  draw 
sustenance  from  the  purse  of  the  public.  Prizes 
which  are  of  solid  cash  are  frequently  competed  for, 
and  occasionally  the  government  steps  in  with  an 
order  bringing  both  fame  and  money  to  the  recipient. 

This  was  the  case  with  Berlioz,  whose  works  were 
not  calculated  to  bring  an  immediate  return  to  his 
purse.  lie  was  admired  in  Germany  : he  was  not 
understood  in  France  ; yet,  had  he  lived  in  the  former 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


country,  his  condition  would  have  been  more  ham- 
pered than  it  was  in  France.  The  French  system  of 
tantiemes.,  prizes,  and  orders,  is  the  true  way  to  as- 
sist the  struggling  artist.  It  will  never  be  effected 
by  funds  for  indigent  musicians,  nor  by  the  sporadic 
efforts  of  private  artistic  patrons,  such  as  Paganini, 
Liszt,  etc. 

The  legislation  of  the  near  future  in  regard  to 
music  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  every  musi- 
cian, especially  the  establishment  of  an  unrestricted 
international  copyright.  At  present,  the  European 
composer  is  not  benefitted  in  any  tangible  way  by  any 
success,  which  his  works  may  achieve  in  America; 
and  the  American  composer  stands  in  the  same  plight 
as  regards  any  possible  European  success.  The  re- 
lationship is  just  now  an  unequal  one,  and  the  ad- 
vantages of  a copyright  law  would  accrue  almost 
entirely  to  the  European  ; but  the  gradual  equali- 
zation of  musical  merit,  and  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  justice,  bid  fair  to  operate  in  the  matter,  and 
soon  this,  also,  will  take  its  place  as  an  important 
instance  of  the  combination  of  Law  and  Music. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OE 
MUSICAL  NOTATION. 


If  there  exists  in  the  world  at  present  any  approach 
to  a universal  language,  it  is  surely  found  in  music 
and  its  written  characters.  In  all  the  most  civilized 
countries,  the  meaning  of  these  characters  is  under- 
stood and  interpreted  correctly.  To  trace  the  rise 
of  such  a universal  language  must  be  a most  inter- 
esting task.  Like  all  other  languages,  we  find  mu- 
sical notation  to  have  been  gradually  developed.  To 
no  single  name  can  be  ascribed  the  glory  of  its  in- 
vention, and  seldom  even  of  a marked  and  important 
improvement. 

The  first  nation  whicli  reduced  music  to  a written 
system  was  China ; and  the  invention  of  a simple 
and  comprehensive  short-hand  writing  by  means  of 
straight  lines  of  various  lengths  and  combinations, 
(which  may,  in  some  respects,  be  compared  to  the 
code  used  in  telegraphy)  seems  to  have  come  into 
use  at  almost  the  same  time,  and  has,  by  some  super- 
ficial writers,  been  confounded  with  the  system  of 
Chinese  notation.  ( 71 ) 


72 


THE  BEALM  OF  31USIC. 


The  musical  notation  of  the  Chinese,  however,  is 
composed  of  the  same  hieroglyphs  which  constitute 
the  stupendous  alphabet  (if  it  can  be  called  so)  of 
that  nation.  The  invention  of  both  the  above  sys- 
tems of  writing  is  ascribed  to  Fo  Hi,  one  of  the 
semi-mythical  characters  of  Chinese  history,  whose  ad- 
ventures so  closely  resemble  those  of  one  of  our  Scrip- 
tural characters  that  some  commentators  have  en- 
deavored to  prove  him  to  be  the  Noah  of  the  Bible. 

The  ancient  Greeks  seem  to  have  partially  bor- 
rowed their  notation  from  the  Chinese.  The  Grecian 
notation  was  also  made  up  of  letters  taken  from  their 
alphabet.  The  first  eight  letters  were  used ; but, 
instead  of  proceeding  from  the  lowest  note  upward, 
they  began  with  the  highest  note  and  ran  down  the 
scale.  This  odd  circumstance  was  for  years  one  of 
the  chief  stumbling-blocks  in  the  way  of  deciphering 
the  few  manuscripts  which  have  been  left  us  of  their 
music.  The  entire  Greek  nomenclature  in  music  seems 
to  have  been  diametrically  opposite  to  modern  ideas. 
They  regarded  the  descending  scale  as  more  natural 
than  the  ascending  one,  and,  in  speaking  of  the 
“ highest  note,”  referred  to  the  longest  string  of  the 
harp,  which  naturally  meant  the  lowest  tone.  The 
constant  growth  of  the  Greek  music  necessitated  con- 
stant changes  in  the  style  of  notation,  and  finally  the 
alphabetical  letters  were  written  in  various  positions 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  73 


to  denote  ehromatie  elianges.  It  is  unfortunate  for 
inodern  eoininentators  on  the  notation  of  the  aneient 
Greeks  that  no  entirely  reliable  speeiniens  exist. 
Even  the  three  Greek  hymns,  which  were  first  pub- 
lished by  Vincenzo  Galileo  (father  of  the  great 
astronomer)  in  1580,  are  more  than  doubtful  in  many 
of  their  details.  There  are  so  many  clear  directions 
for  the  study  of  music  in  the  works  of  Quintilian  and 
others  that,  if  a true  copy  of  any  of  the  vast  rc})er- 
toire  of  Greek  music  could  be  found,  there  is  not 
much  doubt  that  it  would  be  read  with  more  unanimity 
than  has  been  dis})layed  in  the  endeavor  to  elucidate 
the  hymns  to  Apollo,  Calliope,  and  Nemesis,  which 
have  been  unearthed.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  of 
prol)al)ilities  that  such  music  will  yet  be  discovered 
in  Pompeii,  which  was  the  summer  residence  of  the 
fashionable  Roman  world,  and  where  music  must  have 
had  a strong  foothold.  Naturally,  however,  even  at 
the  period  of  the  destruction  of  that  city,  copies  in 
Greek  notation  of  the  Athenian  music  (which  reached 
its  zenith  in  the  reign  of  Pericles)  must  have  been 
rare. 

The  Romans  seem  to  have  copied  their  notation 
chiefly  from  the  Greeks,  but  many  alterations  were 
made  to  suit  the  differences  of  the  alphabet  and  lan- 
guage. The  letters  were  no  longer  placed  in  vary- 
ing positions,  but  were  extended  in  some  instances 


74 


THE  BEAL3I  OF  MUSIC. 


as  far  as  O.  There  are  few  such  explicit  writers  upon 
music  among  the  Romans  as  among  the  Hellenic  phi- 
losophers. The  chief  knowledge  of  their  notation  and 
general  musical  system  is  derived  from  the  works 
of  Boethius,  who  has  been  styled  the  “ last  of 
the  Romans,”  as  he  lived  just  before  the  downfall  of 
the  Western  Empire.  He  was  put  to  death  by 
Theodoric,  the  Goth,  in  525.  Boethius,  all  through 
the  Middle  Ages,  was  the  leading  authority  on  an- 
cient music.  He  wrote  in  Latin,  which  was  far  more 
generally  knoAvn  to  the  monks  than  the  less  orthodox 
Greek,  and  he  was  regarded  (on  entirely  insufficient 
evidence)  as  a Christian,  who  had  probably  suffered 
martyrdom.  His  influence  upon  the  entire  musical 
system  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  bad.  Through  him, 
the  complexities  of  Greek  notation  and  nomenclature 
were  perpetuated,  and,  as  he  wrote  at  a time  when 
Roman  music  was  in  entire  decay,  he  only  gives  the 
Greek  system  at  second-hand,  and  even  then  seems 
not  to  fully  understand  it,  having  probably  gained 
his  knowledge  entirely  in  a theoretical  manner  from 
hazy  Greek  treatises. 

The  Greek  system  of  notation,  by  letters  only, 
seems  to  have  had  one  fatal  shortcoming.  It  spoke 
to  the  mind  only,  and  not  to  the  eye.  A row  of  let- 
ters could  not  instantly  convey  to  the  mind  the  sense 
of  rise  and  fall  in  pitch  : it  needed  something  more 
graphic  to  impress  the  undulations  of  melody  without 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION  75 


a process  of  mental  effort.  Such  a system  soon 
superseded  the  Grecian  method  of  notation.  In  the 
JVeumes^  we  hnd  the  beginnings  of  an  effort  to  appeal 
to  the  eye  as  well  as  to  the  thought.  The  chief  ele-^ 
ments  of  this  mode  of  notation  were  the  vertical 
line  I (called  virga),  the  dot.  , and  the  horizontal 
line,  — (called  Jacens) ; and  after  these,  came  the 
upward  loop,  (called  g^lica  ascendens) , and  the 
downward  loop,  ^ (called  descendeyis) , besides 

a host  of  other  similar  characters.  These  marks  were 
placed  directly  over  each  syllable  ; and  while  they 
could  not  give  the  exact  pitch  to  the  singer,  they 
served  very  well  to  show  the  direction  in  which  the 
voice  should  go,  and  also  indicated  roughly  the 
length  of  the  note.  They  were,  in  short,  merely 
guide-posts  to  assist  the  memory  of  the  singer  in  the 
rendering  of  a song  previously  learned.  Our  signs 
for  a continued  trill,  a turn,  and  mordente  are  direct 
legacies  from  this  ancient  style  of  notation,  which 
first  appears  in  manuscripts  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries.  Apart  from  the  great  defect  that  the 
JN'eumes  could  not  represent  a melody  to  a person 
who  had  not  previously  heard  it  sung,  there  were 
many  varieties  of  this  mode  of  musical  mnemonics,  no 
two  of  which  were  quite  alike ; and  the  result  was 
that  each  had  only  a limited  scope.  One  manuscript 
of  the  fifteenth  century  speaks  of  forty  kinds  of 
mnemonic  notation. 


76 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


The  Neumes  derived  their  greatest  usage  from  the 
fact  that  this  form  of  notation  was  prol:)ably  the 
one  used  by  Gregory  the  Great,  when  he  gathered 
the  remnants  of  the  church  chants  of  his  era,  and 
caused  them  to  be  transcribed,  bound  into  books,  and 
chained  to  the  church  altars.  How  superficial  the 
knowledge  of  the  Neume  notation  was,  and  what  a 
circumscribed  influence  it  exerted,  can  be  understood 
from  the  fact  that,  when  Eomanus  carried  an  authen- 
tic copy  of  Gregory’s  Antiphon  from  Eome  to  St. 
Gallen,  he  found  it  necessary  to  affix  explanatory 
marks  to  the  Neume  notation.  This  was  in  the  year 
790,  and  the  w^orks  had  been  compiled  in  the  pre- 
vious century.  Even  at  this  time,  it  was  found  ne- 
cessary to  form  a new  notation,  for  the  benefit  of  in- 
strumental performers  especially.  For  this  purpose, 
composers  again  turned  to  the  old  Greek  system. 
The  letters  of  the  alphabet  were  used  as  before,  but 
not  in  a descending  manner.  A major  scale,  corre- 
sponding to  the  diatonic  scale,  which  we  begin  on 
C,  was  represented  by  the  letters,  — 

A B C BE  F G A 

This  was  afterward  changed  to  represent  a minor 
scale,  in  an  effort  to  bring  it  more  in  consonance  with 
the  old  Greek  theory.  Odo,  of  Cluny,  is  credited 
with  making  this  reform  during  the  tenth  century, 
thus  fixing  a nomenclature  wdiich  has  existed  down  to 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  77 


the  present  time.  As  harmony  was  yet  unknown 
and  as  the  melodies  weie  generally  of  slow  move- 
ment, this  mode  of  notation  may  have  been  found 
adequate  for  the  mediaeval  organist ; l)ut  it  was  evi- 
dent that  from  the  moment  that  counterpoint  began 
the  notation  would  fail  utterly,  and  it  is  one  of  the 
strongest  proofs  that  the  ancient  Greeks  possessed  no 
harmony,  that  a similar,  crude  method  should  have 
existed  among  them,  with  no  attempts  at  improve- 
ment or  eiforts  at  complaint. 

This  system,  however,  was  used  in  connection  with 
the  Neumes  for  a long  time  ; but  efforts  were  still 
being  made  to  make  the  latter  more  fixed  and  definite. 
Thus,  in  the  later  manuscripts  of  this  notation,  we 
find  the  first  signs  of  musical  expression.  F was  the 
sign  for  loudness,  but  signified  fragor.  T meant 
teneatur  or  tenuto.  Accelerando  or  allegro  were  pic- 
tured by  a C,  — celeriter.  An  endeavor  was  also  made 
to  outline  the  pitch  in  Neume  notation  l)y  drawing  a 
red  line  across  the  manuscript.  This  line,  which, 
represented  F,  was  the  very  beginning  of  modern 
staff  notation.  Another  line,  this  time  of  yellow 
color,  was  soon  added  above  the  red  one  ; and  this 
later  line  was  to  represent  C.  Soon,  the  colors  of 
the  two  lines  were  omitted,  and  the  letters  F and  C 
were  placed  at  the  beginning  of  each  of  them.  From 
this  arose  our  F and  C clefs,  which  preceded  the  G 


78 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


clef.  All  of  the  modern  clef  marks  are  but  modifi- 
cations of  the  letters  used  by  the  monks  to  denote  the 
pitch  of  their  lines.  It  is  amusing  to  see  the  tenta- 
tive efforts  which  were  put  forth  on  ev^iy  side  to  in- 
crease the  utility  of  the  mediaeval  notation. 

All  was  constantly  changing,  but  these  very 
changes  prove  that  the  art  had  begun  to  grow.  But 
the  staff  notation,  once  evolved  (even  in  such  a crude 
and  elementary  state),  was  found  too  advantageous 
not  to  be  adhered  to.  The  changes  thenceforth  con- 
sisted chiefly  in  its  application.  From  too  few  lines, 
the  inventors  sprang  to  far  too  many.  Hucbald,  a 
monk  of  St.  Amand  in  Flanders,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  inventor  of  the  foundation  of  modern  nota- 
tation,  the  line  system.  He  died  about  932.  He 
used  at  first  the  single  and  double  lines ; but  finally, 
discarding  the  Neume  notation  altogether,  he  began 
to  use  a staff  of  several  lines,  thus  : — 


The  letters  at  the  beginning  simply  refer  to  the 
length  of  the  interval,  and  indicate  tones  and  semi- 
tones. In  this  staff,  only  the  spaces  were  used,  the 


TIIF  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  79 


lines  themselves  not  coming  into  play  at  all ; and, 
even  in  the  spaces,  notes  were  not  used,  but  simply 
the  syllables  of  the  words  to  be  sung  were  written. 
This,  though  seemingly  an  advance  upon  the  old 
system,  was  in  reality  a retrogression,  since,  in  the 
use  of  the  F and  C lines  only,  space  and  lines  were 
both  used.  But  the  later  system  was  invented  with 
a purpose.  Hucbald  had -invented  the  beginning  of 
harmony,  at  first  a crude  succession  of  empty  fifths 
and  fourths,  called  ovcjanum.,  and  found  that  his  dif- 
ferent voice  parts  could  not  (as  he  thought)  be  repre- 
sented upon  any  other  than  a many-lined  staff,  and 
therefore  invented  that  to  supply  the  need.  His 
staff,  with  words,  appeared  as  follows  : — 


T. 

Do- 

T. 

mini 

T. 

Sit 

oria 

in 

Ilia 

bitur. 

S. 

glo- 

Do- 

ssec  - 

ta  - 

T. 

mini 

Ise  - 

T. 

sit 

oria 

in 

uia 

bitur. 

S. 

glo- 

saec- 

ta  - 

T. 

Do- 

lae  - 

T. 

mini 

T. 

Sit 

oria 

in 

ula 

bitur. 

S. 

glo- 

Do- 

ssec- 

ta- 

T. 

mini 

lae  - 

T. 

Sit 

oria 

in 

ula 

bitur. 

S. 

glo- 

S36C  - 

ta- 

T.  IJB- 


80 


THE  MEAL3I  OF  MUSIC. 


The  transcription  of  the  above  would  be  as  follows  : 


Hucbald  used  many  other  devices  to  obtain  clear 
results  in  the  field  of  musical  notation.  At  times, 
he  marked  the  commencement  of  each  line  with 
a Greek  character  denoting  its  pitch,  instead  of 
using  the  T and  S,  as  above,  and  he  invented  new 
figures  of  his  ,own  to  represent  some  notes.  He 
even,  in  some  of  his  latest  manuscripts,  used  dots 
and  lines  to  indicate  (for  the  first  time)  short  and 
long  notes.  In  these  efforts,  we  find  the  true  begin- 
nings of  modern  notation.  With  the  very  begin- 
nings of  part-writing,  the  old  methods  were  found 
useless.  Modern  music  seems  to  have  necessitated 
modern  notation.  Soon  after  the  staff  invention  of 
Hucbald,  in  w^hich  the  spaces  only  were  used,  by  one 
of  those  revulsions  often  found  in  this  period  of  musi- 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION  81 


cal  history,  a notation  was  used,  in  which,  although 
the  many-lined  staff  appeared,  the  spaces  were  dis- 
carded altogether,  and  the  lines  only  were  used.  A 
combination  of  both  seems  not  to  have  occurred  at 
once  to  the  composers  of  the  dark  ages. 

In  the  time  of  that  most  practical  music  teacher, 
Guido  d’ Arezzo,  many  great  improvements  were 
made.  Guido,  called  “of  Arezzo”  from  the  town 
where  he  was  born,  surnames  being  unknown  at  that 
time,  was  a Benedictine  monk  at  Pomposa,  near 
Kavenna,  between  the  years  1023  and  1036,  and 
must  therefore  have  been  born  not  far  from  the 
year  1000. 

He  was  the  most  practical  of  musicians  and  teach- 
ers, and  it  is  not  strange  therefore  that  we  find  him 
bringing  order  and  practicality  into  the  unwieldy 
mass  of  musical  effort  of  his  time.  All  his  important 
reforms  were  made  in  the  direct  course  of  his  teach- 
ing. At  every  new  difficulty  which  arose,  he  w^ould 
assist  the  pupil  by  some  new  invention,  or  the  novel 
application  of  some  old  theory.  Our  present  vocal 
scale  (solmization)  arose  from  one  of  these  practi- 
cal devices.  It  was  one  of  Guido’s  hardest  tasks  to  fit 
his  pupils  to  read  a melody  with  any  degree  of  cer- 
tainty. The  vagueness  of  musical  notation  stood  in 
his  way  at  every  turn.  At  last  a happy  thought 
struck  him  : he  noticed  that  each  line  of  the  hymn 


82 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


which  the  students  sang  daily  to  St.  John  (a  very 
prosaic  invocation  to  the  saint  to  guard  their  throats 
from  hoarseness,  since  they  were)  to  be  used  in  his 
honor)  began  with  a different  syllable,  and  also  rose 
one  degree  at  each  phrase.  The  music  was  as  fol- 
lows : — 


ri— 1 — i — j— 1 

t 

f 

L 

^ ^ & 

^ ~A  r 

# • ^ ^ I 

a r r L ^ ...  □ 

UT  qne  - ant  la  - xis,  RE -so  - na  - re 


, I ^ 


^ 

-|  "i 

• r r ^ 

- 

f — j — •— 

... 

fl  - bris,  Ml  - ra  ge  - sto-rum  FA-nm-li  tu 


o-rnm,  SOL-ve  pol  - lu  - ti,  L A - bi  - i re - 


r7=^. — r ^ ^ 

^ -I — 

- 

r r r:  r r ..  ^ ^ ^ . 

^ [I  r 

h— r — ' 

-EE E — - 

a - tom,  San  - cte  Jo  - ban  - nes. 


Here  was  Guido’s  opportunity.  He  caused  these 
syllables  to  be  used  to  represent  the  notes  by  the 
students,  who  had  already  learned  to  associate  them 
together  in  their  minds,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
modern  scale  was  formed.  It  may  be  mentioned 
that  the  French  today  use  ut  as  the  first  note  of  the 
scale,  although  other  nations  have  changed  it  to  do* 


* Guido’s  scale  was  hexacliordal,  and  contained  no  “leading 
tone.”  The  seventh  note  was  added  in  the  next  century,  and 
received  the  name  of  “si.” 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  83 


Into  Guido’s  personal  history,  we  need  not,  in  an 
article  like  this,  dive  very  deeply;  but  we  may 
briefly  state  that  he  betrayed  a great  contempt  for  the 
music  teachers  of  his  time,  and  seems  to  have  been 
fully  conscious  of  his  own  merits.  His  brother 
monks  disliked  him  so  cordially  that  he  was  finally 
forced  to  quit  the  monastery,  a fortunate  occur- 
rence, since,  being  called  to  Koine,  his  system  ob- 
tained the  necessary  fame  for  its  perpetuation  ; after 
some  time,  he  returned  to  Pomposa,  laden  with  hon- 
ors, and  passed  his  later  years  in  perfecting  his  va- 
rious improvements  and  inventions. 

How  much  he  actually  invented  in  notation  it  is 
difficult  to  say,  since  he  used  the  right  of  genius,  and 
adopted  the  thoughts  of  others  whenever  he  found 
them  useful.  He  was  also  so  much  reverenced 
in  the  succeeding  century  that  it  became  customary 
to  call  him  the  “ inventor  of  music,”  and  to  ascribe 
any  and  every  musical  discovery  to  him.  Such  a 
halo  is  woven  around  him  by  the  old  musical  writers 
that  he  becomes  almost  mythical  to  the  modern  reader. 
There  is,  however,  no  doubt  that  he  added  to  the 
notation  of  Hucbald,  and  greatly  advanced  the  crude 
system  of  the  monk  of  St.  Amand.  There  were  two 
rival  systems  of  notation  existing  at  this  epoch  ; and 
Guido  threw  his  power  against  the  vagueness  of  the 
JSFeumm,  and  worked  with  might  and  main  for  the 


84 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


line  (or  staff)  system.  Taking  the  yellow,  c line, 
and  red,  f line,  he  drew  a black  line  between,  to 
represent  a.  The  staff  was  now  represented  thus  : 

c Y ello  w . 

« Black. 

f. Red . 

And,  most  important  improvement  of  all,  Guido  used 
the  spaces  to  represent  notes  as  well.  It  was  prac- 
tically the  same  as  the  modern  staff.  Besides  this, 
there  is  evidence  that  Guido  did  not  always  confine 
himself  to  the  three  lines,  but  sometimes  added  a line 
above  the  yellow  one  to  represent  c,  or  below  the 
red  one  to  represent  d.  Guido’s  notes  were  still  bor- 
rowed from  the  Neumes,  but  he  altered  their  shape 
somewhat,  so  that,  even  in  these  marks,  we  perceive 
the  predecessors  of  modern  notes.  It  was  natural 
that  Guido,  after  eliminating  the  vagueness  from  the 
Neumes,  should  still  continue  to  use  them,  for,  as 
he  employed  them  on  a fixed  staff,  they  became  not 
only  notes  but  signs  of  expression  as  well.  For  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  music,  notation  became  a 
fixed  science  and  its  meaning  definite.  We  learn 
that  it  caused  astonishment  at  the  time  that  one  of 
the  popes  was  able  to  read  Guido’s  musical  manu- 
script at  sight,  which  only  proves  how  indefinite  the 
previous  methods  of  notation  had  been.  Hucbald 
had  invented,  Guido  had  improved,  the  germ  of  mod- 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  85 


ern  notation.  Naturally,  such  a notation  did  away 
with  the  old  style  of  representing  the  notes  by  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  but  the  latter  system  seems  to  have 
died  hard.  As  late  as  the  fifteenth  century,  some 
manuscripts  appear,  with  a notation  which  consisted 
of  the  first  fifteen  letters  of  the  alphabet.  Such  a 
notation  appeared  about  as  follows  : — 


Qui  tol-  Us.  pec  - ca  - ta 

and  its  solution  would  be  as  follows  : 


Fr:  ^ ^ 

1 1 

Qui 

— 1 1 1 — 

tol 

1 1 — 

lis 

(S' si 

-(S' ^ 

pec  - - - - ca  - - ta 


Spite  of  the  fixity  which  Guido  gave  to  the  JSFeumm, 
we  cannot  but  feel  that  it  Avould  have  been  an  ad- 
vantage, had  he  employed  dots  simply,  to  represent 
the  notes.  It  left  a number  of  unnecessary  signs  in 
the  musical  notation  of  his  time.  It  developed  itself 
at  a later  period  into  a more  intricate  series  of  signs, 
which  were  called  the  ‘ ‘ fly-track  ” notation  (pedes 
muscarum^)  from  the  fact  that  the  signs  resemble 
nothing  so  much  as  marks  made  by  a fly  that  has 
emerged  from  a sojourn  in  the  inkbottle.  Guido 


86 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


probably  never  dreamed  of  a series  of  notes  such  as 
are  used  by  the  moderns,  but  undoubtedly  fully 
anticipated  the  use  of  the  staif  and  of  clefs.  The 
fixing  of  the  length  of  notes  was  first  thoroughly 
undertaken  by  Franco  of  Cologne , soon  after  Guido’s 
death.  Franco  seems, like  Guido,  not  to  have  in- 
vented much,  but  to  have  practically  applied  the 
inventions  of  others.  In  the  Ars  Cantus  Mensura- 
hilis^  of  this  writer,  we  come  upon  the  true  system  of 
modern  notation,  although  in  a crude  state.  He  pre- 
sents to  us  these  notes  : — 


Large  Longa  Brevis  Semibrevis. 


The  semibrevis  was  the  shortest  note  in  Franco’s 
system.  He  invented  rules  by  which  these  notes  could 
be  made  perfect  or  imperfect  (an  anticipation  of  plain 
and  dotted  notes)  and  the  composer  could  therefore 
write  in  duple  or  triple  rhythm  at  will.  The  perfect 
notes  were  held  to  be  worth  three  lesser  notes,  in 
honor  of  the  blessed  Trinity  — three  in  one.  At  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  or  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  smaller  notes  began  to  be  invented,  down  to 
sixteenth  notes ; but  these  were  seldom  incorporated 
in  the  older  melodies,  everything  less  than  the  minim 

* This  was  the  first  practical  treatise  written  on  the  subject  of 
musical  notation. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  87 


(half-note)  being  regarded  as  merely  an  embellisli- 
nient.  At  first,  all  notes  were  blaek,  as  above,  al- 
though red  notes  (of  one-fourth  less  value  than  the 
black  ones)  were  sometimes  used ; but  toward  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  both  styles  were  grad- 
ually supplanted  by  white,  or  outline,  notes,  much  as 
we  use  today,  save  that  the  shape  was  square  or 
oblong,  instead  of  round  or  oval.  These  were  gener- 
ally written  on  a staff  of  five  lines,  so  that  some  of 
the  manuscripts  of  the  fifteenth  century  do  not  differ 
vastly  from  the  notation  used  today. 

The  rests  were  formed,  even  from  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries,  almost  exactly  like  those 
used  at  present. 

Second  only  to  the  great  work  of  Franco  is  that 
of  Walter  Odington,  an  English  monk  of  Evesham  in 
Worcestershire,  who  existed  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  best  of  the 
early  English  musicians.  In  his  manuscript,  now 
preserved  at  Caml)ridge,  may  be  found  the  first  traces 
of  the  five-lined  staff,  which,  however,  did  not  come 
into  general  use  until  centuries  after.  Very  soon 
after  Guido’s  placing  of  the  neumes  upon  a fixed 
basis  by  means  of  the  use  of  the  staff,  the  crude  be- 
ginnings of  accidentals  appeared.  These  at  first  had 
reference  to  the  note  B,  which  was  used  in  two  ways 
by  the  ancient  composers,  the  smaller  seventh  calling 


88 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


out  any 
necessary 


for  a note  somewhat  lower  than  B ; while  the  larger 
seventh  called  for  the  natural  B,.  The  result  was 
that  two  kinds  of  B’s  were  used.  The  flatted  note, 
even  in  the  twelfth  century,  was  represented  by 
a small  letter  before  it  thus,^  The  nat- 

ural note  was  often  written  with-  b 
mark  before  it ; but,  if  it  became 
to  annul  the  flatted  note,  and  restore  d to  its  nat- 
ural position,  a quadrated  served  to  do  this,  and  was 
written  thus,  i , Soon  the  first  of  the  above 

signs  became  I JjS  recognized  as  a means  of 

lowering  any  | note,  and  the  second  as  a 

means  of  raising  or  sharping  one.  It  is  evident  that 
at  first  the  quadrate  B was  only  the  sign  which  we 
now  call  a “ natural,”  and  had  the  same  effect.  It 
simply  restored  a B which  had  been  made  flat  to  its 
natural  position.  But  the  distinction  between  a 
sharp  and  a natural  was  a very  vague  one  in  the  old 
times.  If  the  sign  was  written  before  5 or  e,  to  be 
sure  it  had  only  the  effect  of  a natural.  If,  how- 
ever, it  appeared  before  A or  any  other  note,  it  had 
the  effect  of  a sharp.  Its  shape  varies  also  in  the 
old  manuscripts  ; and  we  find  it  written  indiscrimin- 
ately, thus,  I II  I all  of  which  seem 

to  have  had  Q I Q the  same  signifi- 
cance. I I I I I 

We  have  spoken  of  the  above  signs  as  accidentals. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  89 


but  they  were  rather  used  as  signatures  than  other- 
wise. We  find  them  marked  at  the  beginning  of 
staves  of  ancient  compositions,  but  very  seldom  in 
any  other  part  of  the  music. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  endeavor  to  import 
a theological  lesson  into  music  by  means  of  indicating 
the  Trinity  in  notes.  It  complicated  musical  mat- 
ters greatly  in  the  twelfth  century.  Instead  of  fol- 
lowing the  simple  rule  that  one  long  a should  be  of 
the  value  of  two  breves.,  or  that  one  brevis  should 
equal  two  semibreves,  it  was  endeavored  to  make 
each  note  of  the  value  of  three  of  the  next  smaller 
denomination,  so  that  all  the  music  of  the  world 
should  be  in  triple  rhythm.  The  rules  which  were 
adopted  at  this  era  make  the  task  of  reading  the  old 
music  a very  difficult  one.  If  a longa,  for  example, 
followed  a brevis,  the  former  no  longer  possessed  the 
value  of  three  breves,  but  together  with  the  preceding 
note  formed  a group  equal  in  value  to  three.  Some- 
times two  breves  (each  of  which  according  to  this 
theological  rule  was  worth  but  one-third  of  a loiiga) 
could  attain  the  value  of  a longa,  but  never  in  equal 
parts,  the  first  being  twice  as  long  as  the  second.  It 
was,  of  course,  impossilde  that  this  effort  to  reduce  all 
music  to  triple  time  should  haAC  succeeded.  Many 
popular  songs  of  that  time,  as  Avell  as  the  instrumental 
music,  kept  on  in  even  rhythm  undisturbed  ; but. 


90 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


unfortunately,  very  few  specimens  of  the  former,  and 
none  at  all  of  the  latter,  are  left  to  us.  The  music 
which  was  written  for  the  Church  at  this  epoch  was 
all  that  had  really  a chance  of  preservation.  With . 
the  introduction  of  smaller  notes  than  the  semihrevis 
new  rules  appeared.  The  stem  of  Tonga.,  for  ex- 
ample, was  always  turned  down ; while  that  of  the 
minim  and  the  shorter  notes  was  always  turned  up. 
This  rule  was  abrogated  for  the  sake  of  economy  of 
space  in  the  printing  of  music,  which  began  early  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  older  music  is  altogether 
destitute  of  bar  lines,  the  want  of  ready  and  system- 
atic division  not  being  felt  in  the  mensural  chants 
and  sacred  music ; but,  with  the  rise  of  operatic 
composition  in  Italy,  this  great  improvement  sprang 
at  once  into  existence.  Peri  (in  1600)  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  practically  to  use  the  bar  line  in 
the  modern  style.  Grouping  of  notes  together,  a 
great  aid  in  the  representation  of  rhythm,  was  not 
adopted  until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Until  that  time,  a passage  like  the  following 


would  have  been  written  thus  : — 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  1 


although  John  Playford,  already  in  1()()2  had  evolved 
the  system  of  natund  grouping  under  the  name 
of  “tyed  notes.”  It  was,  however,  adopted  very 
slowly. 

The  C and  F clefs  were  the  ones  generally  used  in 
the  music  of  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth 
centuries ; and,  even  at  a later  period,  the  G clef 
was  sparingly  used.* 

The  mark  of  repetition  was  similar  to  our  modern 
one  ; that  is,  dots  were  placed  on  each  side  of  a thick 
bar. 

Sometimes  there  were  two  or  three  of  these  bars, 
which  indicated  that  the  passage  was  to  be  repeated 
as  many  times.  The  marks  of  rhythm  in  the  older 
music  were  few.  The  signature  of  t\\Q  perfectum  (the 
religious  three-in-one  notation,  before  spoken  of)  was 
simply  a circle.  A half-circle,  a circle  with  a dot  in 
the  centre,  and  a half-circle  with  a dot  were  the  chief 
forms  of  denoting  the  imperfect  or  more  complex 
rhythms.  But,  after  the  beginning  of  operatic  com- 
position, the  rhythm  signatures  took  the  simpler  form 
of  adopting  the  semibreve  as  the  unit,  and  regulating 
all  measures  by  their  proportion  to  it.  There  has 
been  no  change  in  this  method  for  the  past  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years.  With  the  perfection  of  the 

* Yet  the  marking  of  the  G clef  was  known  even  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  according  to  some  manuscripts  in  the  author’s 
possession. 


92 


THE  BEAL3I  OF  MUSIC. 


measure  and  the  continual  development  of  orchestral 
music,  directions  as  to  the  mode  of  performance 
began  to  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  compositions. 
We  find  Adagio,  Allegro,  etc.,  in  use  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Accents,  dynamic  abbreviations, 
and  marks  of  expression  followed  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  some  (iases,  the  beginning  of  their  use 
can  be  traced.  The  tie  was  first  used  by  Peri,  in  the 
second  opera  (1600).  The  swell, 

was  first  used  by  Mazzocchi,  in  1638.  The  term  Da 
capo,  or  D.  C.,  as  we  now  abbreviate  it,  was  first 
used  by  Alessandro  Scarlatti  in  an  opera,  in  1693. 

In  reviewing  thus  the  outlines  of  the  history  of 
musical  notation,  we  are  constantly  reminded  of  the 
fact  that  the  system  grew  into  existence  gradually, 
in  response  to  the  needs  of  composition.  It  was  the 
work  of  ages,  and  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  some 
of  the  ambiguities  of  the  Middle  Ages  still  existing 
in  it.  The  sharp  too  closely  resembles  the  natural ; 
the  sign  of  restoration  after  a double  flat  or  double 
sharp  is  ambiguous ; the  use  of  the  sharps  and 
flats  as  accidentals,  and  the  employment  of  the 
natural,  are  frequently  different  with  different  com- 
posers; some  terms  — as  for  example  — 

have  not  been  understood  or  used  alike  by  all  com- 
posers ; the  sextolet  is  used  carelessly  by  many  ; the 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MUSICAL  NOTATION.  <i;; 


slurs  are  used  in  tlie  most  varying  maimer  by  (lif- 
erent eom[)()sers  ; the  aeciaccatura  is  taught  in  dif- 
ferent wa}^s  by  prominent  teaehers,  some  of  whom 
allow  it  to  be  struck  with  the  accompanying  notes, 
wdiile  others  cause  it  to  precede  such  notes  ; the  turn 
is  enveloped  in  the  fog  of  the  last  century  ; the  trill, 
von  Billow  says,  should  begin  wdth  the  upper  note, 
wdiile  other  authorities  state  that  it  should  generally 
begin  and  end  with  the  principal  note  ; and  finally, 
we  have  those  abominable  signs,  a terrible  legacy 
from  the  last  century,  which  represent  a combination 
of  turns  and  mordents,  about  which  all  musicians 
seem  to  be  by  the  ears  and  which  no  two  interpret 
quite  alike. 

These  are  not  all  the  points  of  trouble  in  notation 
and  execution,  hy  any  means,  but  they  are  sufficient 
to  show  that  our  art  could  be  put  upon  a much  better 
foundation  if  ever  its  votaries  were  to  hold  a congress 
which  should  have  definite  authority  to  settle  such 
points. 

There  is  scarcely  a year  passes  but  some  ingenious 
individual  brings  forth  some  improvement  or  reform 
in  musical  notation.  At  one  time  it  is  the  unifica- 
tion of  all  clef  signs,  at  another  the  photographic 
representation  of  the  lengths  of  difterent  notes.  It 
w^ould  be  almost  impossible  to  give  a catalogue  of  all 
the  proposed  changes  that  have  been  thought  of  in 


94 


THEBEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


recent  years.  Yet  none  of  them  have  made  more 
than  a passing  effect  upon  the  great  system  of  nota- 
tion. The  fact  is  that  nothing  in  art  has  established 
itself  more  slowly,  or  taken  root  more  deeply  than 
our  note  system.  It  has  evolved  itself  through  the 
ages.  It  has  become  the  one  universal  written  lan- 
guage of  the  civilized  world.  Yolapiik  will  never, 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  come  into  use 
as  universally  as  the  musical  notation  has  done.  A 
musical  work  written  in  Boston  would  be  intelligible 
to  cultured  people  from  Greenland  to  the  Argentine 
Ilepublic,  from  Russia  and  Siberia  to  Greece,  and 
even  in  Japan  and  China  today  there  would  be  many 
natives  who  could  read  it.  A reform  in  a system  as 
wide-spread  as  this,  must  needs  be  equally  universal. 
A new  note  system  adopted  by  a city,  or  state,  or 
even  by  the  whole  United  States  would  not  exert 
great  influence  upon  the  wide,  wide  field  in  which  our 
system  of  notation  is  employed. 

Yet  only  when  we  have  eliminated  the  faults  and 
vaguenesses  spoken  of  above,  shall  we  possess  in  all 
its  fullness  this  musical  heritage  of  the  ages. 


OLD  ENGLISH  BALLADS, 
WAITS,  AND  CAROLS. 


The  English  school  of  music,  if  indeed  that  nation 
has  the  right  to  claim  a “ school,”  is  even  more 
interesting  in  its  sacred  side  than  in  its  secular  vein. 
The  popular  music  of  England  has  been  too  gener- 
ally “jolly”  to  admit  of  its  attaining  a great  depth. 
The  sacred  music,  on  the  contrary,  was  an  offshoot 
of  the  classical  branch  of  England’s  art,  and  was  even 
in  early  times  worthily  represented  by  contrapuntists 
who  were  reputed  superior  to  any  existing  in  Con- 
tinental Europe. 

There  Avas,  however,  a popular  side  even  to  the 
sacred  music,  Avhich  found  vent  in  thinly-disguised 
secular  melodies  which  became  carols.  The  entire 
festivities  of  Christmas  Avere  so  heartily  enjo^^ed  by 
the  peasantry  that  it  Avas  impossible  that  the  music 
of  the  holiday  should  remain  of  an  entirely  classical 
mould.  The  singing  of  carols  by  Avaits,  in  the  early 
morning,  Avas  at  first  only  an  imitation  of  the  singing 
of  the  angels  to  the  shepherds  at  the  birth  of  the 
(95) 


96 


THE  BEAL3I  OF  3IUSIC. 


Saviour.  The  title  ffiven  to  them  — “ noels  ” or 

X' 

“ nowels’'  — is  hut  a slight  change  from  the  French 
word  noiivelles,  — news. 

The  earliest  English  carols  (the  custom  of  caroling 
extends  back  to  the  fourth  century  in  Italy)  were,  like 
the  people,  hearty  and  joyous.  The  animal  spirits  of 
the  populace  were  not  even  to  be  restrained  within 
sacred  bounds,  but  found  vent  in  semi-humorous 
carols  which  became  very  popular.  Here  is  one 
(completed  by  Macfarren)  which  has  come  down  in  a 
fragmentary  state  from  before  the  time  of  Shake- 
speare . 

Let’s  dance  and  sing  and  make  good  cheer, 

For  Christmas  comes  but  once  a year, 

The  holly  shall  deck  our  household  gear 
With  its  blooming  winter  cherry. 

We’ll  burn  the  yule  log,  many  tapers  we’ll  light, 

And  with  hearts  more  warm  and  wif  i looks  more  bright 
We’ll  put  the  cold  weather  and  care  to  flight. 

And  make  old  Christmas  merry. 

We’ll  doflfthe  old  gentleman’s  mantle  of  snows. 

The  icicles  peel  from  his  doubtlet  and  hose ; 

We’ll  thaw  the  blue  tint  from  his  frost-bitten  nose 
With  a cup  of  mulled  sack  and  sherry. 

Then  the  brawn  and  roast-beef  and  the  turkey  and  chine. 
The  pudding,  mince-pie,  and  plum-porridge  divine. 

The  stingo,  the  lamb’s  wool,  the  nuts  and  the  wine 
Shall  make  old  Christmas  merry. 

There  were  many  songs  of  this  order,  a true  reflec- 
tion of  the  good  living  of  the  people.  There  are 


OLD  ENGLTSU  BALLADS,  WATTS  AND  CAROLS.  f)7 


others  whicli  are  direct  imitations  of  the  ])allads  of 
early  times,  and  these  bear  evidence  of  great  antiquity. 

One  of  the  most  notable  examples  of  those  is 
the  “ Cherry-tree  Carol,”  whieh  is  precisely  like  the 
ballads  of  the  Middle  Ages, — ballads  which  were 
more  popular  in  England  than  elsewhere,  and  in 
which  historical  events  were  preserved  in  a rough 
and  uncouth  metre. 

Here  ward,  the  original  Robin  Hood,  was  celebrated 
in  a host  of  such  ballads,  and  many  of  the  old  his- 
torians (the  monkish  “chroniclers”)  did  not  scruple 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  scraps  of  history  to  be 
found  in  them.*  In  the  “Cherry-tree  Carol,”  the 
refrain  (the  repetition  of  a single  line  Avithout  refer- 
ence to  the  sense)  is  absent ; but  in  every  other 
detail  it  bears  evidence  of  its  antiquity.  Its  melody 
alone  shows  this, — 


1 1 T 1 

1 ^ 

i 1^^  1 1 

j r 

J 1 1 1 1 1 

1 j ^ 

0 2 \ A \ J,  1 

— j — — 

The  words  are  : — 


Joseph  was  an  old  man, 
An  old  man  was  he. 
He  married  sweet  Mary, 
And  a virgin  was  she. 


* William  of  Malmesbury,  Roger  de  Hoveden,  and  others, 
allude  to  them  frequently. 


98 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


As  they  went  a- walking 
In  the  garden  so  gay, 

Maid  Mary  spied  cherries 
Hanging  over  yon  tree. 

Mary  said  to  Joseph, 

With  her  sweet  lips  so  mild ; 

“ Pluck  those  cherries,  Joseph, 

Por  to  give  to  my  child.” 

“ Oh,  then,”  replied  Joseph, 

With  words  so  unkind, 

“ I will  pluck  no  cherries 
For  to  give  to  thy  child.” 

Mary  said  to  cherry-tree  : 

“ Bow  down  to  my  knee, 

That  I may  pluck  cherries 
By  one,  two,  and  three.” 

The  uppermost  sprig  then 
Bowed  down  to  her  knee. 

“ Thus  you  may  see,  Joseph, 

These  cherries  are  for  me.” 

“ Oh,  eat  your  cherries,  Mary, 

O eat  your  cherries  now. 

Oh,  eat  your  cherries,  Mary, 

That  grow  upon  the  bough.” 

After  this  episode  of  the  cherries,  there  follow 
seven  verses,  describing  Joseph  hearing  the  angels 
sing  as  they  tell  him  of  the  divinity  of  their  new-born 
King  ; and  the  carol  closes  with  the  verses 

Mary  took  her  baby. 

She  dressed  him  so  sweet. 


OLD  ENGLISH  BALLADS,  WAITS  AND  CAB OLS.  09 

She  laid  him  in  a manger, 

All  there  for  to  sleep. 

As  she  stood  over  him 
She  heard  angels  sing, 

“ O bless  our  dear  Saviour, 

Our  heavenly  King!” 

Some  of  the  better  order  of  carols  were  undoubt- 
edly written  by  the  clergy,  for  many  of  them  in- 
dulged in  poetry  and  music,  and  the  greatest  of 
England’s  earliest  contrapuntists  were  monks. 

The  Abbot  Aldhehn,  in  the  seventh  century,  used 
his  musical  abilities  to  shrewd  advantage  in  the  cause 
of  religion ; for,  “stationing  himself  on  the  bridge, 
like  a professed  ‘minstrel,’  he  would  sing  ‘trivial 
songs,’  attracting  thereby  a large  multitude,  when, 
having  engaged  their  attention,  he  would  sing  them 
songs  on  more  serious  topics.”  One  of  his  ballads 
remained  popular  for  over  four  hundred  years.  Dun- 
stan  owed  his  elevation  chiefly  to  his  skill  in  music.* 

The  waits  f who  sang  the  carols  described  above 
were  children,  poor  people,  and  professionals,  who 
sought  to  obtain  slight  remuneration  in  food  or  money 
from  the  people  before  whose  houses  they  sang. 

The  term  “ wait  ” is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
and  signifies  “ watch”  or  “ watchman.”  It  was 


* Chappell,  Pop.  of  the  Olden  Time. 

t Originally  spelled  “ waightes.” 


100 


THE  REALM  OF  3IUSIC. 


probably  attached  to  these  night  singers  from  the 
fact  that  in  Germany  and  some  other  European 
conntries  the  watchmen  sing  at  different  hours  of  the 
night. ^ The  waits  were  officially  recognized  in  Eng- 
land during  the  early  part  of  this  century  ; and  the 
business  must  have  been  a lucrative  one. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  salary  paid  to  a wait, 
of  the  time  of  Edward  TV,  is  preserved,  which  de- 
fines the  duties  of  the  musician,  among  which  seems 
to  be  a page’s  service  (whence  some  mistakenly  de- 
rive the  word  “waiter”),  and  allows  him  daily  a 
gallon  of  ale,  Td.  salary,  two  candles,  meat,  bread, 
etc.,  in  large  quantities,  and  recognizes  him  as  of 
great  importance  generally.| 

A writer  in  JVotes  and  Queries  calls  attention  to  the 
similarity  of  the  word  ‘ ‘ wait  ” and  the  Scotch  term 
“ waithe,”  to  wander,  and  conjectures  that  the  term 
may  have  been  applied  to  these  musicians  as  wander- 
ing minstrels  ; but  it  seems  to  us  much  more  natural 
that,  as  the  custom  dates  back  to  Anglo-Saxon  times, 
the  term  should  have  come  to  us  from  the  same  epoch. 
The  carols  of  these  singers  certainly  reflect  the  spirit 
of  English  music  with  much  fidelity,  and  are  interest- 
ing alike  to  churchman,  historian  and  musician. 

In  the  general  music  of  a nation,  one  may  often 

* There  are  many  allusions  to  this  fact  in  the  songs  of  the 
German  minnesingers, 
t See  article  on  “ Law  and  Music.” 


OLD  ENGLISH  BALLADS,  WAITS  AND  CABOLS.  IQl 


find  the  truest  refiection  of  the  charaeteristies  and 
manners  of  the  people ; and  viewed  in  this  light, 
the  tracing  of  the  songs  of  a country  may  be  a val- 
uable adjunct  to  its  history,  political  and  otherwise. 
Thus,  in  the  light  bolero  and  cachuca  movements  of 
the  tropical  countries,  one  sees  the  wild,  dashing, 
sensuous  character  of  the  Spaniard ; in  the  senti- 
mental, yet  thoughtful  and  not  over-passionate  vein  of 
the  German  Volkslied,  the  dreamy  but  phlegmatic  na- 
ture of  the  Teuton  ; in  the  pleasant,  ‘ ‘catchy  ” chanson, 
the  grace  and  lightness  of  the  pleasure-seeking  French- 
man ; in  the  minor  strains  of  Russia,  and  the  strange 
rhythms  of  Poland,  a complex  nature,  fierce,  gentle, 
brooding,  and  wildly  hilarious  in  sudden  transitions. 
History  gives  us  detailed  information  regarding  the 
Englishman  of  the  Dark  Ages.  Uncouth  and  awk- 
ward as  the  general  peasantry  were,  plenty  and 
contentment  reigned  in  their  cottages.  A foreign 
historian  of  the  twelfth  century*  wonders  at  the 
hearty  appetites  and  healthy  living  of  the  lower 
orders,  and  their  constant  love  of  rude  and  manly 
sports.  Stow  and  Strutt  f give  copious  accounts  of 
these  sports,  and  lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that  the 


* Fitzstephen  wrote  an  account  of  England,  with  many  refer- 
ences to  the  musical  life,  in  1175: 
t Strutt’s  work  on  ancient  English  sports  is  very  valuable  to 
the  musical  historian. 


102 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Englishman’s  leading  trait  has  always  been,  as  it  is 
now,  robustness  and  jollity.  An  examination  of 
over  six  centuries  of  English  song  shows  us  this 
jollity  in  almost  all  the  music.  It  is  true  that  Eng- 
land possessed  some  composers  of  great  learning  at 
a very  early  epoch.  The  Flemish  writers  had  such 
a respect  for  their  abilities  that  they  ascribed  the  in- 
vention of  counterpoint  to  Englishmen.  But  the 
learning  of  a few  men  could  not  make  the  people  fond 
of  intricate  music  ; and  although  the  names  of  Walter 
Odington  and  John  Dunstable  exist,  very  little  is 
known  of  their  works. 

On  the  other  hand,  music  written  for  the  people, 
or  adapted  to  their  hearty  and  joyous  mood,  has  al- 
ways taken  deep  root  in  England,  and  existed  for 
centuries.  The  earliest  secular  song  of  which  the 
harmony  is  left  is  Summer  is  ycumen  in  (^Summer  is 
coming  in) , and  it  is  a work  greatly  in  advance  of 
the  style  of  secular  composition  of  France  or  Italy 
or  the  Netherlands.  It  at  once  voices  the  merry 
feeling  which  is  the  pervading  trait  of  English  pop- 
ular music.  It  was,  from  the  eleventh  to  the  thir- 
teenth century,  one  of  the  most  popular  songs  in 
England,  and  it  was  arranged  for  six  male  voices, 
four  of  which  present  very  good  canonic  treatment, 
while  two  give  a drone  bass,  — a wonderful  work  for 
this  early  epoch. 


OLD  ENGLISH  BALLADS,  WAITS  AND  CAIIOLS.  K)3 


The  Avell-known  fact  that  King  Canute  composed  a 
song  which  endured  through  some  centuries  must 
remain  but  a barren  statement,  since  all  traces  of  the 
melody,  and  all  but  one  verse  of  the  words,  are  lost. 

The  songs  of  Shakespeare’s  epoch  have  remained 
almost  intact,  and  many  of  them  possess  the  same 
high  animal  spirits  which  can  be  found  in  the  works 
of  Adams,  Diehl,  or  Marzials  today.  Harmonized 
in  the  modern  vein,  they  become  very  modern-sound- 
ing comi)ositions. 

The  epoch  of  the  Civil  ^Var  was  rich  enough  in  its 
music,  l)ut  it  was  all  upon  one  side,  and  that  side  the 
losing  one.  The  round-head  thought  that  psalm- 
singing was  the  only  use  to  Avhich  music  ought  to  be 
})ut.  The  cavalier,  on  the  contrary,  sang  in  the  most 
jovial  manner  of  love,  of  wine,  of  loyalty,  with  an 
occasional  sarcastic  stroke  in  the  manner  of  his  prim 
opponents.  Naturally,  some  of  this  music  was  lost 
after  the  defeats  and  reverses  of  the  noble  singers. 

The  music  connected  with  the  wars  of  the  Pre- 
tender was  rather  Scottish  than  English,  but  it  con- 
tained an  admixture  of  both  schools,  and  has  been 
preserved  with  tolerable  completeness.  Even  in  its 
despondent  moments,  it  does  not  have  anything  akin 
to  the  dreaminess  of  German,  or  the  woe  of  some 
Pussian  music.  In  its  brighter  numbers,  there  is  the 
same  robust  heartiness  which  belongs  to  the  songs  of 


104 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


the  cavaliers,  or  of  Shakespeare’s  era,  or  of  the  ear- 
lier time  of  Chancer. 

The  last  century  produced  a musical  epoch  which 
did  much  towards  consolidating  the  navy  of  England. 
As  Beranger  is  the  king  of  all  Bacchanalian  poets, 
so  Dibdin  may  be  regarded  as  the  admiral  of  all 
sailor  poets.  His  brother  was  in  the  mercantile 
marine,  and  the  poet  derived  much  of  his  knowledge 
of  sea-life  from  him.  Tom  Bowling  (one  of  his 
best-known  songs  ) was  written  to  commemorate  the 
death  of  this  brother.  It  is  a noticeable  fact  that, 
although  this  is  an  elegy,  it  is  but  slightly  in  minor 
mode.  It  is  a characteristic  of  the  entire  old  English 
repertoire  that  the  minor  mode  is  very  sparingly 
used.  In  recent  days,  this  jollity  and  heartiness  has 
been  somewhat  eliminated  from  English  songs  and 
ballads.  Two  causes  have  led  to  this.  The  first 
cause  may  be  sought  in  the  melodies  of  the  poet 
Moore.  It  is  true  that  the  lays  are  to  some  extent 
Irish,  but  many  of  the  most  sentimental  became  most 
popular  in  English  drawing-rooms,  and,  being  sup- 
plemented by  the  weaker  dilutions  of  Mrs.  Hemans 
and  Mrs.  Norton,  an  epoch  of  mixed  sentiment  and 
sentimentality  — pathos  and  bathos  — set  in.  The 
effects  of  this  school  yet  exist. 

The  second  cause  is  that  more  attention  is  paid  to 
the  elaboration  of  accompaniment  than  formerly. 


OLD  ENGLISH  BALLADS,  WAITS  AND  CAIiOLS.  1()5 


The  leading  composers  of  England  have,  since  Men- 
delssohn’s time,  ])cen  l)rought  somewhat  under  (mer- 
man influence,  and  many  have  pursued  almost  their 
entire  musical  course  of  study  in  Germany.  This, 
while  it  has  given  a more  finished  style  of  writing, 
has  taken  away  some  of  the  national  directness  and 
heartiness. 

Of  course  we  cannot,  in  such  a mere  outline 
sketch,  give  many  individual  instances.  The  English 
national  hymn  itself  calls  for  extended  comment.  The 
musical  works  of  Henry  VIII  call  for  the  careful 
analysis  of  the  antiquarian  (the  blue-beard  king  was 
a good  musician  and  composer),  and  volumes  might 
be  written  on  the  old  musical  manuscri[)ts  left  us 
from  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  which  are  almost 
barbaric  in  their  rude  notation, — so  much  so  that 
they  have  hitherto  defied  an  intelligible  interpreta- 
tion. 


THE  LEG-ENDS  OE  MUSIC. 


Barbaric,  ancient,  and  half-civilized  nations  have 
all  paid  their  sincerest  tribute  to  music,  in  ascribing 
its  origin  to  divine  sources,  and  in  giving  its  best 
results  to  the  worship  of  their  gods.  Naturally, 
this  has  resulted  in  a vast  amount  of  legendary  lore, 
much  of  which  comes  from  very  remote  ages.  A 
legend,  however  trivial  it  may  seem,  if  it  be  a 
national  one,  always  possesses  a great  degree  of  in- 
terest for  the  ethnologist,  philologist,  and  historian. 
Some  of  our  most  simple  fairy  tales  and  children’s 
rhymes  convey  far  more  to  the  real  student  than  to 
the  children  whom  they  amuse.  In  the  rhyme 

“ Ride  a cock-horse 
To  Banbury  Cross,” 

the  historian  traces  the  hippogriffus,  or  combined 
horse  and  bird,  of  ancient  times,  reproduced  in  a 
modern  version.  In  the  story  of  William  Tell,  who, 
if  he  existed  at  all,  must  have  been  entirely  innocent 
of  the  shooting  feat  ascribed  to  him,  the  searcher 
( 106  ) 


THE  LEGENDS  OF  MUSIC. 


107 


finds  a trace  of  the  migration  of  races,  from  the  old 
Aryan  times  before  European  history  had  begun. 
The  tale  is  found  in  Danish  works  of  the  twelfth 
century,  in  Norwegian  legends  of  the  eleventh,  in 
the  Faroe  Islands,  and  finally  at  its  fountain-head  in 
Persia  and  in  Hindostan.  Thus  also,  in  simple  mel- 
odies of  savage  nations,  one  can  trace  the  prehistoric 
w^anderings  of  tribes.  Some  of  the  Malaysian  melo- 
dies are  the  same  as  those  of  tribes  situated  a thousand 
miles  distant,  and  prove  either  a relationship  of  de- 
scent or  an  intercourse  at  some  very  ancient  epoch. 
Were  history  entirely  silent  regarding  the  crusades, 
one  would  know  by  a single  musical  tune,  that  there 
had  long  ago  been  intercourse  between  Western  Eu- 
rope and  the  Orient,  since  the  tune  of  “ Malbrooke” 
or  ‘ ‘ Marlborough  ” metamorphosed  in  America  and 
England  into  “ He’s  a jolly  good  fellow,”  is  the  pop- 
ular song  of  many  of  the  Arabs  and  of  the  Egyptian 
Fellaheen,  or  peasantry,  and  is  a musical  monument 
of  crusader’s  times.  But  in  the  similarity  of  the 
^musical  legends  of  various  nations  one  finds  fully 
|3.s  much  food  for  thought  and  inference  as  for  amuse- 
ment. 

The  Greek  legend  of  the  Sirens  may  claim  our 
'attention  first.  These  dangerous  singers  were  said 
ito  live  by  the  sea-coast,  on  the  south-western  coast 
jof  Italy,  and  the  beauty  of  their  song  was  such  that 


108 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


the  sailors  cruising  by,  ceased  their  voyage,  and,  lin- 
gering near  the  spot,  forgot  all  else,  and  listened  to 
the  music  until  they  died  of  hunger.  Other  Greek 
writers  say  that  their  singing  caused  the  sailors  to 
steer  for  the  dangerous  rocks  on  which  they  sat,  and 
thus  perish  by  ship-wreck.  The  name  Siren  means 
entangler ; and  Homer  speaks  of  these  entanglers  in 
the  plural  and  describes  them  as  beautiful  maidens, 
but  does  not  specify  the  number.  Other  writers 
mention  three,  and  give  their  names  and  an  account 
of  each.  The  legends  say  that,  if  any  one  success- 
fully resisted  the  charm  of  their  singing,  the  Sirens 
would  die.  Homer  narrates  that  Ulysses,  in  sailing 
by,  followed  the  advice  of  Circe,  and  stopped  up  the 
ears  of  his  comrades  with  wax,  and  then  had  himself 
lashed  to  the  mast,  so  that  he  heard  the  song  and 
yet  sailed  safely  by.  Others  say  that  it  was  the 
Argonauts  who  sailed  by,  because  of  the  superior 
singing  of  Orpheus,  and  that  the  maidens,  on  being 
vanquished,  threw  themselves  into  the  sea  and  were 
transformed  into  rocks. 

The  Hellenic  legend  was  such  a beautiful  one  that 
it  is  very  natural  to  suppose  that  it  should  be  carried 
into  other  nations,  and  be  metamorphosed  by  them 
into  legends  bearing  the  same  general  features,  yet 
altered  to  suit  new  surroundings.  As  far  as  we 
know,  the  Greek  legend  is  original ; but  we  find 


THE  LEGENDS  OF  3IUSIC.  l()ij 

maidens  exerting  the  blandishments  of  music  in  the 
much  earlier  times  of  Hindu  mythology.  When 
Khrishna,  the  Indian  deity,  was  upon  the  earth  in 
the  guise  of  a shepherd,  sixteen  thousand  nymphs 
endeavored  to  win  his  heart  by  singing ; and  the  leg- 
end goes  on  to  say  that  each  one  sang  in  a different 
mode.  The  success  of  these  nymphs  was  not  so  pro- 
nounced as  the  general  success  of  the  sirens.  But 
from  the  legend  of  the  sirens  comes  the  legend  of 
the  Loreley,  altered  to  suit  the  German  mind  and 
the  topography  of  the  Rhine.  The  Loreley  Rock  is 
about  four  hundred  and  thirty  feet  high,  and  is  sit- 
uated on  the  Rhine  near  St.  Goar,  in  the  vicinity 
of  some  dangerous  rapids,  many  sunken  rocks,  and 
a whirlpool.  It  has  a remarkable  echo,  which  is 
said  to  repeat  sounds  over  fifteen  times.  All  these 
circumstances  have  combined  to  give  rise  to  the  leg- 
end,  which  must  have  been  borrowed  originally  from 
that  of  the  sirens.  The  Loreley  dwelt  in  a cave  of 
the  rock,  and  often  came  out  to  sit  upon  the  summit, 
where  she  would  comb  her  long  golden  locks,  and 
sing  a wonderful  melody.  The  sailor  who  heard  it 
forgot  to  steer,  and  was  lost  upon  the  reef  below. 
Some  legends  represent  her  as  being  an  unwilling 
tempter  who  wept  over  her  victims,  and  even  sought 
to  warn  them,  but  fruitlessly,  as  the  charm  of  her 
singing  overcame  all  other  thoughts.  Heine  has  set 


no 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


the  legend  beautifully  and  concisely  in  one  of  his 
earlier  poems.  The  Loreley,'  it  will  be  seen  at  a 
glance,  was  but  an  outgrowth  of  the  Sirens,  trans- 
ferred to  a river. 

The  various  mermaids  of  Northern  mythology,  all 
of  whom  are  musical,  are  also  descendants  of  the  si- 
rens. It  is  a natural  fact  that  almost  all  the  gods 
and  supernatural  beings,  who  are  connected  with 
oceans,  seas,  rivers,  brooks,  or  fountains,  in  whatso- 
ever country  they  are  found,  are  represented  as 
endowed  with  wonderful  musical  powers.  It  only 
proves  with  what  unanimity  the  ancients  recognized 
the  beauty  of  the  voice  of  the  waves.  It  proves  yet 
more,  since  it  is  evident  that  all  the  wide-spread  leg- 
ends of  antiquity  had  their  rise  in  some  natural 
phenomena,  veiled  in  the  language  of  metaphor.  We 
shall  find  this  yet  more  strongly  illustrated  in  other 
Greek  legends.  To  briefly  finish  with  the  musical 
water  deities,  Odin,  the  Scandinavian  God,  ruler  of 
the  sea,  was  held  to  be  the  inventor  of  magic  songs, 
and  was  said  to  rule  over  musical  contests  in  the  caves 
of  the  sea.  The  North  is  filled  with  legends  of  mer- 
maids. Every  spring  or  fountain  is  supplied  with  a 
deity,  and  all  these  are  musically  gifted. 

Our  very  term  of  “ old  Nick”  is  but  a derivation 
from  the  title  of  these  nymphs,  who  are  styled 
“ Necks  ” or  “ Nixes”  by  the  Swedes  and  Norwe- 


THE  LEGENDS  OF  MUSIC. 


Ill 


gians.  The  Swedes  have  a neck  entitled  the  Stioin- 
karl,  who  lives  in  the  vicinity  of  cascades  and  water- 
mills, and  the  Norwegians  have  a similar  one  named 
Fossegrim,  both  of  whom  can  be  sacrificed  to  by 
oftering  them  lambs,  and  will  in  return  teach  their 
music  to  their  worshipper.  In  one  of  these  legends, 
we  find  the  tale  of  Tannhduser  anticipated.  The 
necks,  like  some  of  the  nymphs  of  Eastern  mythology, 
are  supposed  to  have  forfeited  some  of  their  chances 
of  heaven,  although  it  is  believed  that  they  will  ulti- 
mately be  saved.  A clergyman  crossing  a bridge  is 
said  to  have  heard  a neck  singing,  and  reproached  it 
with  its  cheerful  song,  saying  that  as  sure  as  the 
staff*  in  his  hand  should  never  bloom  again,  so  sure 
was  he  that  the  water-sprite  would  never  gain  salva- 
tion. The  neck  ceased  singing,  cast  away  its  harp 
and  wept  bitterly  ; but  the  staff*  began  miraculously 
to  bloom,  and  the  neck  on  being  told  of  this  resumed 
its  songs  with  great  joy,  and  the  refrain  was  taken  up 
by  all  its  sister  spirits.* 

Two  fairy  stories  relative  to  these  musical  water- 
nymphs  are  given  by  Engel  in  his  Musical  Myths 
and  Facts,  are  interesting  enough  to  quote.  The 
first  reminds  strongly  of  the  “ Loreley,”  but  has  a 
happier  ending.  It  is  of  Irish  origin. 

* The  blooming  of  the  staff  of  the  Pope,  in  the  legend  of 
Taniihauser  is  evidently  another  version  of  this  miraele. 


112 


THE  BEALM  OF  3TUSIC. 


Maurice  Connor  was  the  best  bagpiper  in  the  province 
of  Munster.  One  day,  as  he  was  playing  on  the  sea-coast, 
at  a lonely  place  in  the  county  of  Kerry,  a beautiful  lady  with 
green  hair  came  up  from  the  sea,  singing  and  dancing  most 
charmingly;  and,  when  she  invited  him  to  go  with  her  and  to 
marry  her,  he  could  not  resist.  Thus,  Maurice  Connor, 
became  the  husband  of  the  green-haired  lady  deep  in  the  sea. 
The  union  evidently  proved  happy;  for  several  years  after- 
ward, the  sea-faring  people  often  heard  on  the  still  night  the 
sounds  of  a bagpipe  off  the  coast;  and  some  say  they  are  quite 
sure  it  was  Maurice  Connor’s  music  that  they  heard. 

The  second  is  a popular  tale  of  Belgium  ; and  al- 
though the  likeness  is  still  recognizable,  the  Belgian 
fairies  seem  far  less  dignified  than  either  the  Sirens  or 
the  Loreley.  The  lighter  character  of  the  peasantry 
has  left  its  mark  on  the  legend. 

One  evening  in  autumn,  at  a vintage  festival,  three  beauti- 
ful maidens  approached  from  the  banks  of  the  Meuse,  and 
joined  the  party.  Never  were  such  excellent  partners  found; 
and,  after  the  dance,  they  sang  with  such  beauty  that  all  list- 
ened entranced,  and  unconscious  of  the  passing  time.  At 
twelve,  however,  the  maidens  bade  all  good-night,  and  van- 
ished. 

On  the  following  evening,  they  came  again;  and  the  glo- 
rious dance  went  on  as  before.  As  the  air  was  sultry,  one  of 
them  drew  off  her  gloves,  and  her  partner  took  care  of  them 
for  her.  They  enjoyed  themselves  so  much  that  they  were 
still  dancing  when  the  clock  struck  twelve.  Startled  by  the 


THE  LEGENDS  OF  MUSIC. 


113 


sound  they  ceased  dancings  and  one  of  them  asked  hurriedly, 
“Where  are  my  gloves  The  youth  wished  to  retain  the 
gloves  as  a token  of  love,  and  the  maiden  was  obliged  to 
hasten  away  with  her  companions.  The  young  man  followed, 
for  he  wished  to  discover  where  his  fair  partner  lived.  He 
pursued  them  to  the  banks  of  the  Meuse,  aud  saw  them  throw 
themselves  in  and  vanish. 

When,  on  the  following  morning,  he  returned  to  the  river 
where  he  had  lost  sight  of  his  partner,  he  found  the  water  at 
that  place  blood-red,  and  the  three  maidens  never  appeared 
again. 

The  water-lily  is  by  the  Germanic  nations  regarded 
as  the  symbol  of  the  nixes.  These  charming  beings, 
it  is  said,  are  so  fond  of  music  and  dancing  that  they 
occasionally  come  up  from  the  water  to  the  villages 
lying  near  their  abode,  to  join  in  the  festivity.  If, 
however,  they  tarry  too  long  at  these  visits,  their 
life  is  forfeited,  and  on  the  water  into  which  they 
descend  is  afterward  seen  the  stain  of  their  blood. 

The  resemblance  between  other  legends  of  musical 
deities  of  the  land  is  not  less  striking  than  in  the 
musical  lore  connected  with  those  of  the  water. 

In  the  legends  of  all  ancient  times,  we  find  pictured 
in  the  language  of  metaphor  some  fact  relative 
either  to  the  phenomena  of  nature  or  derived  from 
some  real  historical  basis.  The  legend  of  Orpheus, 
for  example,  runs  as  follows : Orpheus,  son  of 


114 


THE  BEALM  OF  3IUSIC. 


Apollo  and  Calliope,  was  gifted  from  his  very  birth 
with  supernatural  musical  powers.  Apollo  gave  to 
him  the  lyre,  and  by  its  power  he  was  able  to  move 
men  and  beasts.  The  fishes  in  the  water,  the  birds 
in  the  air,  even  rocks  and  trees  and  inanimate  nature, 
were  obliged  to  yield  to  the  power  of  his  music.  He 
joined  the  Argonauts  in  their  expedition  for  the 
golden  fleece,  and  by  his  music  saved  them  from 
many  perils.  The  sirens  were  silenced,  cliffs  which 
were  falling  to  crush  them  were  suspended  in  air  at 
his  tones,  and  monsters  who  were  about  to  devour 
them  were  lulled  to  sleep.  His  wife  Eurydice  is  bit- 
ten by  a serpent  and  dies ; and  Orpheus  takes  his 
lyre,  and  follows  her  into  the  infernal  regions.  He 
sings  to  Pluto  and  Proserpine,  and  the  monarchs  of 
Hades  are  melted  by  his  music.  Tantalus  forgets  his 
thirst,  Ixion’s  wheel  ceases  to  turn,  and  all  the  many 
punishments  cease  under  his  spell.  He  is  then  al- 
lowed to  take  his  beloved  back  to  earth,  but  he  must 
not  look  upon  her  until  their  journey  is  finished.  He 
disobeys  this  command,  and  Eurydice  is  lost  to  him 
forever.  His  death  is  sudden  and  violent ; but  here 
the  various  legends  differ,  some  ascribing  it  to  a 
thunderbolt  from  Jove,  some  to  the  Thracian  women 
who  tore  him  limb  from  limb.  Some  legends  say 
that  the  fragments  were  collected  by  the  muses  and 
buried  in  a grave,  over  which  a nightingale  sang  ever 
after. 


THE  LEGENDS  OF  31 U SIC. 


115 


This  legend  illustrates  both  the  statements  made  at 
the  beginning  of  this  [)aper.  That  there  was  an 
Orpheus  in  remote  times  there  seems  no  valid  reason 
to  doubt.  He  was  a priest  of  Thrace,  in  the  service  of 
the  god  Zagreus.  He  made  many  useful  musical  in- 
ventions, and  must  have  been  very  celebrated  in  his 
time.  In  following  ages,  the  legends  began  to  in- 
crust around  his  growing  reputation,  somewhat  as 
fabulous  tales  were  told  in  the  Middle  Ages  about 
Guido  of  Arezzo.  Among  these  tales  were  many 
of  Indian  origin  ; and,  as  is  the  case  with  the  San- 
skrit legendary  lore , many  of  these  had  their  origin 
in  natural  phenomena.  Orpheus  is  really  the  sun, 
and  Eurydice  is  the  dawn.  The  serpent  which  bites 
her  is  the  night,  and  the  disappearance  of  Eurydice 
when  Orpheus  looks  upon  her  is  simply  typical  of  the 
disappearance  of  the  dawn  in  the  fuller  rays  of  the 
sun.  We  have  spoken  in  the  above  legend  of  the  lyre, 
which  was  the  invention  of  Hermes.  The  Egyptians 
describe  this  invention  in  a legend  as  follows  : — 
Hermes  (or  Mercury)  wandered  by  the  side  of  the 
Nile,  after  one  of  the  inundations  of  that  river  had  re- 
ceded. A tortoise  which  had  been  left  upon  the  banks 
by  the  receding  waters  had  died,  and  been  so  dried  up 
by  the  sun  that  nothing  but  the  tendons  remained. 
These  were  still  attached  to  the  shell,  and  by  its  ex- 
pansion had  become  so  tightly  drawn  that  they  had  a 


116 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


musical  vibration.  Hermes  stumbled  over  the  shell. 
The  shell  and  its  natural  strings  gave  forth  a sweet 
tone,  and  thus  the  invention  of  the  lyre  was  literally 
stumbled  upon. 

This  natural  formation  of  an  instrument  is  some- 
thing which  we  often  find  outside  of  fairy  tales  and 
legendary  lore.  In  almost  every  case,  the  earliest 
races  derived  their  musical  instruments  from  their 
surroundings.  The  Hindus  and  Chinese  who  had 
bamboo  forests  in  their  vicinity  began  with  flutes  and 
other  reed  instruments.  The  savages  found  it  easy  to 
convert  the  hollow  trunk  of  a decayed  tree  into  a drum  ; 
hence,  we  And  that  their  almost  universal  instru- 
ment. The  cattle-keeping  tribes  soon  found  that 
blowing  though  the  horns  of  the  cattle  they  had  slain 
gave  them  a musical  tone,  and  began  making  prim- 
itive horns  and  trumpets.  Thus,  we  see  that  even 
instrumental  music,  although  far  less  natural  than 
vocal,  yet  had  its  foundations  in  natural  causes. 

With  the  story  of  Arion,  we  can  conclude  our  ex- 
amination of  the  Greek  musical  mythology,  although 
there  are  many  other  Hellenic  legends  which  we  have 
not  space  to  mention. 

Arion  was  a celebrated  performer  upon  the  kith- 
ara,  or  lute,  in  Lesbos,  about  the  year  700  B.  C., 
and  was  regarded  by  many  historians  as  the  inventor 
of  the  dithyrambic  metre.  Herodotus  first  gives  the 


THE  LEGENDS  OF  31USIC. 


117 


tradition  of  his  adventures,  but  the  poets  soon  added 
many  variations  and  embellislmients.  Arion  was 
sent  l)y  Periander  of  Corinth  to  Italy,  and  at  Tar- 
entum  is  said  to  have  won  the  prize  in  a inusieal  con- 
test. lie  received  numerous  rich  presents  during 
his  stay  in  Italy;  when  on  his  return  to  Corinth, 
these  gifts  awakened  the  avarice  of  the  sailors,  who 
determined  to  slay  him  and  seize  upon  his  wealth. 
Apollo  had  previously  warned  him  of  this  event  in  a 
dream,  and  he  therefore  had  prepared  a plan  of  ac- 
tion, and  before  they  murdered  him  he  besought  them 
to  allow  him  to  play  upon  his  lute  for  the  last  time. 
They  consented,  and  he  played  so  sweetly  that  several 
dolphins  came  around  the  ship,  when  he  threw  himself 
into  the  sea,  and  placing  himself  on  the  back  of  one 
of  them,  rode  safely  to  the  shore,  and  journeyed  to 
Corinth.  The  sailors  arrived  soon  after,  and  as- 
suring Periander  that  Arion  was  dead,  they  were  con- 
fronted with  him,  confessed  their  guilt,  and  were 
crucified.  This  legend  represents  the  fishes  as  more 
moved  by  the  music  than  the  sailors.  It  is  far  less 
poetic  than  the  earlier  legends  of  the  Sirens  or  of 
Orpheus. 

We  shall  now  turn  from  the  Hellenic  legends  of 
music  to  the  far  older  legends  of  India  and  China. 
These  countries  have  been  the  fountain  head  wdience 
many  of  the  legends  which  have  streamed  down  to 
modern  times  took  their  rise. 


118 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


In  India,  we  find  music  pictured  in  mythology  and 
fable  with  many  metaphors,  showing  the  reverence 
with  which  the  ancient  race  regarded  the  art.  It 
begins  with  Brahma,  who  is  said  to  have  sprung 
from  an  egg,  in  which  he  had  lain  over  three  thou- 
sand billions  of  years.  The  egg,  as  the  symbol  of  the 
germ  of  life,  was  held  in  reverence  by  more  than  one 
sect  in  ancient  India  and  Egypt,  and  the  customs 
attached  to  Easter  eggs  in  many  parts  of  Europe, 
which  have  also  found  their  way  to  America,  probably 
had  their  foundation  in  this  ancient  egg  worship. 
When  Brahma  had  burst  from  the  egg,  he  endowed 
spirits  with  the  power  of  music,  and  his  consort  then 
invented  the  chief  Indian  musical  instrument,  the 
Vina,  and  brought  it,  together  with  the  art  of  music, 
from  the  gods  to  mankind.  The  entire  tone  system 
of  India  is  tinctured  with  metaphor  and  mythology. 
Every  note  has  some  particular  god  or  goddess. 
Each  of  these,  even  down  to  the  slightest  nymph, 
has  some  especial  attribute  or  some  legend  attached 
to  her  history. 

In  all  the  earliest  legends  of  the  music  of  the  gods, 
drums  and  trumpets  are  mentioned,  and  in  this,  the 
legends  coincide  with  the  accounts  of  Strabo,  who 
says  that  the  Indian  kings  were  always  preceded 
with  a flourish  of  drums  and  trumpets.  But,  besides 
the  accounts  of  these  instruments,  the  anecdotes  of 


THE  LEGENDS  OF  MUSIC. 


119 


the  power  of  the  Vina,  the  chief  musical  instrument  of 
the  East  today,  are  scattered  through  the  old  sacred 
books,  and  mythological  pictures  of  great  antiquity 
abound.  In  one  of  these,  we  find  a female  Orpheus 
playing  upon  a Vina  instead  of  upon  a lute,  and  sur- 
rounded by  gazelles  which  the  might  of  her  music  has 
drawn  around  her.  Tlie  leofends  of  the  mi<>ht  of  the 
Raagni,  or  folk  song,  are  almost  entirely  metaphor- 
ical, and,  as  almost  all  the  legends  of  the  Hindus  bring 
in  the  phenomena  of  nature  in  one  shape  or  another, 
anecdotes  are  told  of  a singer  who  could  cause  plants 
to  grow  by  singing  to  them.  Another  was  able  to  alter 
the  course  of  the  seasons  by  music.  A third,  like 
Joshua,  was  able  to  arrest  the  course  of  the  sun  by 
his  tones.  The  prevention  of  a drought  by  means  of 
the  music  of  a singer  who  was  able  by  this  means  to 
cause  the  rain  to  fall  from  the  clouds  is  a favorite 
subject  of  Indian  legends.  There  is  one  subtle  differ- 
ence between  many  of  the  legends  of  India  and  those 
of  Greece.  In  the  Hellenic  tales,  it  is  generally  the 
singer  who  is  endowed  with  supernatural  attributes, 
while  in  many  of  the  Indian  legends  it  is  the  music 
which  is  endowed  with  these  gifts  rather  than  the 
singer.  Thus,  one  legend  narrates  the  pitiful  fate  of 
a singer  who  was  commanded  by  a ruler  to  sing  the 
Fire-song,  and  who,  upon  obeying,  w^as  at  once  con- 
sumed by  flames,  although  he  had  plunged  into  a 
river  to  avoid  this  catastrophe. 


120 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


In  China,  too,  we  find  many  traces  of  similar  good 
taste  in  celebrating  the  power  of  the  music  rather 
than  the  skill  of  the  performer.  The  origin  of  music 
in  China  is  ascribed  to  a mystical  bird  which  bears 
a startling  resemblance  to  the  mythological  Phoenix. 
It  is  called  the  Foang-hoang,  and  its  appearance  is 
regarded  as  a most  favorable  omen,  auguring  a reign 
of  prosperity  for  the  empire  and  presaging  peace  and 
plenty.  It  is  said  that  originally  the  music  of  China 
was  taken  from  the  tones  of  this  wonderful  bird, 
which  sans:  five  notes  while  its  mate  sans:  seven,  all 
of  which  were  faithfully  recorded  by  a philosopher 
who  had  been  ordered  to  invent  a music  for  the  em- 
pire. But  the  tones  of  the  female  were  not  pure  and 
celestial  tones,  and  therefore  the  five  tones  of  the 
male  bird  only  w^ere  used  in  forming  the  Chinese 
musical  system.  Another  legend  ascribes  the  rise 
of  a certain  class  of  songs  to  a good  emperor  who 
listened  to  the  songs  of  the  birds,  and  was  so  soothed 
and  delighted  thereby  that  he  composed  a music 
which  was  able  to  calm  all  passion , give  perfect  hap- 
piness, and  prolong  the  life  of  man.  But  the  person 
who  of  all  others  is  honored  as  the  inventor  of  Chi- 
nese music  is  called  Fo-Hi,  and  is  to  the  Chinese 
what  Orpheus  and  Apollo  were  to  the  Greeks. 

This  mythical  personage  is  credited  with  the  in- 
vention of  almost  all  the  arts.  He  brought  written 


THE  LEGENDS  OF  MUSIC. 


121 


characters  to  the  Chinese,  he  invented  a system  of 
shorthand,  and  finally  invented  music.  Ilis  first  songs 
were  simply  a code  of  ethics  and  morals  set  to  tones. 
In  order  to  add  to  the  beauty  of  these  songs,  he  in- 
vented the  Kin,  which  is  to  China  what  the  Vina  is  to 
India.  In  making  this  instrument,  he  symbolized 
various  portions  of  the  universe.  The  upper  paid 
represented  heaven,  the  lower  the  earth : another 
division  was  supposed  to  symbolize  the  winds,  and 
still  another  the  nest  of  the  Foang-hoang.  This  in- 
strument could  rule  the  passions  and  calm  the  heart. 
How  closely  all  these  myths  are  built  upon  some  pre- 
existing model  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  the  adven- 
tures of  Fo-Hi  'so  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Scrip- 
tural Noah  that  some  commentators  have  endeavored 
to  prove  them  to  be  one  and  the  same  person.  In 
almost  all  the  legends  we  have  briefly  scheduled,  one 
.of  two  things  is  apparent  — either  the  supernatural 
attril)utes  of  the  hero  picture,  under  the  language 
of  metaphor,  some  of  the  phenomena  of  nature,  or 
the  entire  legend  is  founded  upon  the  deeds  and 
actions  of  some  real  personage,  which  have  become 
exaggerated  by  time  or  by  ignorance.  We  trust 
that,  even  in  this  necessarily  short  and  imperfect 
paper,  our  readers  will  find  a family  resemblance  in 
the  myths,  and  thus  become  more  conversant  with 
the  mode  of  their  rise,  and  more  interested  in 


122 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


the  inferential  history  conveyed  in  the  Legends  of 
Music. 


MUSIC  AND  MEDICINE. 


The  employment  of  music  in  the  healing  art  is  cer- 
tainly as  old  as  the  days  of  the  patriarchs,  and  the 
singing  of  David  before  Saul  was  only  a practical 
illustration  of  a theory  which  had  long  obtained  re- 
cognition in  Egypt.  It  is  strange,  however,  that  spite 
of  the  general  acknowledgment  of  its  efficacy,  music 
has  been  so  little  employed  as  an  assistant  to  materia 
medica.  Up  to  the  present  time,  the  chief  use  made 
of  medical  music  (if  we  may  coin  the  expression)  has 
been  among  the  medicine  and  mystery  men  of  sav- 
age nations,  and  in  this  case  the  instruments  em- 
ployed have  been  rather  of  a noisy  than  of  a musical 
nature.  In  certain  species  of  St.  Vitus’  dance,  and 
tetanus,  music  has  been  employed  with  much  success 
by  European  physicians.  The  most  celebrated  in- 
stance of  this  kind  is  the  employment  of  lively  dance 
rhythms  for  the  cure  of  the  bite  of  the  tarantula.  A 
rather  full  account  of  such  a cure  was  sent  to  an  Ital- 
ian medical  review  in  1841,  in  which  the  symptoms 
are  vividly  described.  Although  the  patient  was  pre- 
(123) 


124 


THE  BEAL3I  OF  MUSIC. 


viously  unable  to  stand  on  his  feet,  a lively  rhjdbmic 
tune  caused  him  to  jump  from  his  bed  and  dance 
for  two  hours,  after  which  he  fell  down  exhausted,  in 
a ]Drofuse  perspiration,  and  slept  quietly.  A few 
repetitions  of  the  dose  caused  a complete  cure.  It 
is  a question  whether  any  strong  sudorific  might  not 
have  attained  the  result  without  the  aid  of  music,  but 
the  fact  still  remains  that  music  was  the  only  agency 
capable  of  rousing  the  patient  from  his  comatose  con- 
dition. In  the  Middle  Ages  there  were  many  cures 
of  St.  Yitus’  dance  accomplished  by  music.  Strange 
to  say,  this  disease  became  epidemic  during  several 
years  in  M'estern  Europe. 

The  practice  of  vocal  music,  under  the  most  care- 
ful conditions,  is  to  be  recommended  as  a cure  for 
consumption  and  bronchial  affections  in  their  earliest 
stages.  But  here  it  is  not  the  music,  but  the  gentle 
and  regular  exercise  of  the  affected  parts  which  brings 
the  cure.  Of  the  hygienic  results  of  playing  upon 
certain  instruments,  Engel  speaks  at  considerable 
length  in  an  .article  on  this  subject.  Quoting  from 
Sundelin’s  work  he  finds  that  the  piano  and  stringed 
instruments  are  at  times  hurtful  to  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, the  glass  harmonica  dangerously  exciting  to  the 
nerves,  the  clarinet  hurtful  to  the  lungs,  brass  in- 
struments similarly  hurtful,  but  in  a less  degree,  and 
the  harmonium  or  cabinet  organ  harassing  to  the 
nerves  of  the  performer. 


MVSIC  AND  MEDICINE. 


125 


Much  of  this  is  of  course  fanciful,  yet  it  is  greatly 
to  be  desired  that  medical  authorities  should  give 
their  attention  to  studying  the  effects  of  the  various 
instruments  u})on  health  more  closely. 

The  medical  side  of  music  has  not  yet  been  exam- 
ined as  closely  as  it  should  be,  particularly  in  its 
connection  with  eye  and  ear.  There  are  many  phe- 
nomena regarding  the  physical  part  of  tone  perception 
that  would  repay  investigation.  Women  as  a rule 
can  perceive  tones  higher  than  men.  The  right  ear 
can  perceive  tones  so  high  in  pitch  that  they  are  in- 
audible to  the  left  ear,  showing  plainly  that  the  two 
sides  of  the  brain  are  unequally  developed.  Most 
curious  is  the  phenomenon,  observable  in  certain 
cases,  of  the  sudden  obliteration  of  the  sense  of  pitch  ; 
there  are,  for  example,  persons  in  existence  (and 
they  can  be  found  more  frequently  than  is  suspected) , 
to  whom  the  highest  notes  of  the  piano  are  inaudible, 
while  all  others  are  clearly  heard. 

The  transition  from  sound  to  silence  is  sometimes 
very  abrupt,  the  subject  hearing  one  note  distinctly, 
and  another,  perhaps  a semitone  above  it,  not  at  all. 
One  of  the  most  palpable  cases  of  decay  in  the  aural 
organs  occurred  with  a very  famous  com[)oser, — 
Robert  Franz.  Ilis  nerves  were  prostrated  by  the  sud- 
den piping  of  a locomotive  behind  him,  and  a gradual 
and  peculiar  deafness  set  in.  One  by  one  the  upper 


12(5 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


notes  of  the  tonal  system  vanished  until  he  became 
almost  totally  insensible  to  high  sounds.  The  lia- 
bility of  all  musicians  to  aural  troubles  is  but  a nat- 
ural result  of  an  over  use  of  one  set  of  nerves.  Bee- 
thoven’s deafness  was  unquestionably  superinduced 
by  an  inherited  disease  but  it  was  in  all  probability 
aggravated  by  his  profession.  Schumann  suffered  in 
his  later  years  with  false  hearing,  a symptom  of  in- 
sanity. 

Blindness  attacks  musicians  at  times,  from  the 
severe  strain  to  which  their  eyes  are  subjected  in 
many  ways.  Bach  became  blind,  possibly  because 
of  his  arduous  application  to  music  copying  and  en- 
graving. Handel  was  also  blind  in  later  years,  prob- 
ably from  the  cause  that  weakens  the  sight  of  so 
many  musicians  — scorereading. 

There  is  no  more  abnormal  use  of  the  eye  imagina- 
ble than  the  reading  of  a full  orchestral  or  vocal  score. 
The  eye  must  not  only  read  horizontally  as  in  piano 
music,  but  must  be  used  vertically  as  well,  in  a man- 
ner that  tasks  the  nerves  beyond  any  other  reading 
that  exists.  Probably  the  nearsightedness  and  weak- 
ness of  sight  that  is  so  characteristic  of  many  musi- 
cians, especially  in  the  foremost  ranks,  is  more  directly 
traceable  to  scorereading  than  to  any  other  cause. 
There  are  other  diseases  which  come  from  a too  con- 
stant application  to  one  instrument,  and  pianist’s 


3IUSIC  AND  MEDICINE. 


127 


cramp  is  the  direct  result  of  exercising  one  set  of 
muscles  only  (digital,  wrist  and  forearm)  and  allow- 
ing the  others  to  fall  into  desuetude. 

Ill  the  matter  of  vocal  stimulants  almost  every 
public  singer  has  some  especial  preparation  for  his 
throat  which  is  used  before  concert  or  opera,  and 
these  are  so  different  in  their  nature  that  the  conclu- 
sion is  forced  upon  the  mind  that  the  virtues  of  many 
of  them  lie  chiefly  in  the  imagination  of  the  user. 
That  such  preparations  for  public  performance  are 
modern  in  origin,  must  by  no  means  be  supposed, 
for  we  read  in  Suetonius  that  the  Emperor  Nero,  in 
the  first  century  of  our  era,  often  laid  upon  his  back 
with  sheets  of  lead  upon  his  stomach  for  hours  at  a 
time,  before  his  appearance  at  the  theatre,  which  was 
probably  done  to  strengthen  the  diaphragm.  The 
Greek  choristers,  in  the  fifth  century  before  the 
Christian  era,  were  accustomed  to  have  their  food 
regulated  by  the  choragus.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  in  those  early  days  singing  was 
a much  more  serious  affair  than  at  present,  for  the 
songs  of  Nero  frequently  lasted  for  six  or  seven  hours, 
and  the  choristers  in  ancient  Greece  were  accustomed 
to  stand  throughout  the  performance  of  an  entire 
tragedy,  in  front  of  the  stage,  in  the  body  of  the 
auditorium,  on  spaces  marked  out  for  each  chorister, 
or  of  not  more  than  a square  yard  in  extent.  In  the 


128 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


ancient  Coptic  churches  the  singers  also  sang  hymns 
of  hours  in  length,  and  here  the  congregation  was 
obliged  to  stand  throughout  the  service  o 

In  our  day  the  stimulants  used  by  celebrated  vocal 
artists  are  most  various.  Some  hold  smoking  as  ab- 
solutely injurious,  while  others,  particularly  German 
singers,  pulf  the  weed  vigorously  between  their 
songs  and  say  that  it  prevents  their  catching  cold,  by 
warming  their  throat  and  nostrils.  Some  regard 
spiced  foods  of  all  kinds  as  deleterious,  while  on  the 
other  hand,  a celebrated  Swedish  singer  always  ate  a 
salt  pickle  before  appearing  in  public.  Cold  tea  is 
used  by  some  as  a mild  astringent  to  clear  the  throat. 
Eggs  beaten  with  milk  is  a favorite  prescription  with 
many.  Eggs  and  sherry  are  used  in  England  by 
many  vocalists.  In  France  the  light  wine  of  the 
country  is  freely  used  in  many  a green  room.  A 
famous  prima  donna  of  today  uses  champagne  as  best 
for  her  throat  in  an  exhausting  opera.  Altogether  it 
may  well  be  doubted  whether  any  preparation  at  all 
is  necessary,  only,  of  course,  no  meal  or  hearty  eat- 
ing may  })recede  singing  as  the  diaphragm  cannot 
act  freely  when  the  stomach  is  full. 

The  connection  between  music  and  madness  is  a 
well-established  one.  This  connection  is  two-fold  : 
on  the  one  hand,  many  composers  and  musicians 
have  exhibited  a predisposition  toward  insanity  ; and 


MUSIC  AND  MEDICINE. 


129 


Oil  the  other,  music  has  proved  of  immense  benefit  to 
})ersons  suffering  with  hypochondria  or  melancholia. 
This  again  is  counterbalanced  by  the  fact  that  in 
some  instances  music  has  caused  melancholy  and 
madness  in  auditors.  It  is  said  that  when  the  first 
church  01‘gan  ivas  played  in  Europe  (during  the  reign 
of  Charlemagne)  a lady  who  heard  it  went  raving 
mad  from  the  unexpected  effects  of  tone.  During 
the  first  performance  of  Haydn’s  Symphony  in  D in 
London,  a clergyman  present  was  so  touched  by  the 
adagio  movement  that  he  became  impressed  with  the 
monomania  that  it  })ortended  his  death.  lie  left  the 
hall,  plunged  in  deepest  melancholy,  and  as  a matter 
of  fact,  died  a few  days  after. 

The  connection  of  music  with  morals  is  a strong 
one,  and  would  require  a volume  instead  of  an  article 
to  do  it  justice. 

The  time  may  yet  come  when  music  will  be  regu- 
larly admitted  as  a part  of  materia  medica.  The 
intimate  connection  between  the  art  and  the  science 
is  most  excellently  set  forth  in  a prize  essay  by 
Ephraim  Cutter,  M.  D.,  L.  L.  D.,  read  a few  years 
ago,  before  the  London  Society  of  Science,  Letters, 
and  Art,  and  we  cannot  better  conclude  our  discursive 
views  on  this  important  topic  than  by  presenting  the 
following  excerpts  from  the  work  of  this  able  and 
scientific  physician. 

Dr.  Cutter  says  : — 


130 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


“ At  first  sight  there  would  seem  to  be  but  little  connec- 
tion between  medicine  and  music,  nevertheless,  music  has  to 
do  with  the  hearing,  with  the  voice  in  singing,  with  the  res- 
piration in  playing  on  wind  instruments,  and  with  a perfection 
of  limbs  in  playing  on  stringed  or  other  instruments. 

“ Anatomy  shows  us  the  wonderful  structure  of  the  ear, 
by  which  we  feel  the  vibrations  of  the  atmosphere.  It  shows 
the  rods  of  Corti  suspended  in  a liquid  medium  confined  in  a 
singular  whorl-shaped  cavity,  which  is  provided  with  a mem- 
braneous window  on  which  is  a curious  chain  of  bones,  the 
stirrup,  the  anvil,  and  the  hammer  connecting  with  the  drum 
of  the  ear,  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  external  passage. 
Thanks  to  modern  invention,  the  rhinoscope  discloses  also  the 
pharynx  and  orifices  of  the  Eustachian  tubes. 

“ Anatomy  has  shown  that  the  rods  of  Corti  are  the  final 
media  in  the  ear  that  transmit  vibrations  to  the  nerve  centers. 
The  number  of  40,000  per  second  being  the  highest  that  can 
be  perceived. 

“Anatomy  has  also  shown  the  structure  of  the  human  larynx, 
throat  and  mouth,  that  have  to  do  in  the  production  of  music, 
which  may  be  called  cantation.  A great  deal  was  learned 
from  the  dead  larynx  ; but  when  the  laryngoscope  was  in- 
troduced, a new  flood  of  light  was  thrown  on  the  subject,  and 
the  difference  was  shown  to  be  as  great  as  that  between  life 
and  death. 

“ The  offices  of  the  true  vocal  cords  or  bands,  the  false 
vocal  cords  or  bands,  the  epiglottis,  the  passages  through  the 
mouth  and  nose,  the  use  of  the  tongue  and  teeth,  are  now 
well  known  and  described.  Photography  has  even  depicted 
the  living  larynx  in  its  actual  place  and  relations  and  in 


MUSIC  AND  MEDICINE. 


131 


action.  Czerak,  of  Prague  (about  1 862),  was  the  first  to 
photograph  it.  In  November,  1865,  the  writer  took  the 
first  photographs  in  America  of  the  living  human  larynx 
(his  own).  Mr.  F.  Hardy,  A.  13.,  now  of  Springfield,  Mass., 
was  his  skilled  assistant.  Copies  of  these  photographs  are 
deposited  in  the  U.  S.  Army  Medical  Museum  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

“There  is  an  interesting  function  of  the  false  vocal  bands, 
which,  as  it  is  not  generally  known,  may  be  alluded  to  briefly 
here.  The  false  vocal  bands  close  during  the  act  of  holding 
the  breath,  and  are  probably  the  chief  agents  in  retarding  the 
emission  of  the  breath  during  singing  and  phonation.  This  is 
an  important  office,  and  should  give  these  bands  a better  name 
than  ‘ false  ' for  their  work  is  as  ‘ true  ’ as  that  of  the  vocal 
bands  themselves.  The  writer  calls  them  ‘ Breath  Bands  ’ 

“In  singing,  the  tones  are  produced  by  the  action  of  the 
vocal  bands  alone;  these  tones  are,  like  the  tones  of  a cornet, 
produced  by  the  air  passing  through  the  lips  on  the  embouchure 
of  the  mouth-piece.  In  ‘songs  without  words,’  the  larynx 
‘ plays  ’ like  an  instrument  ; but  in  songs  with  words  the 
varied  tones  are  modified  by  the  position  of  the  tongue,  mouth 
and  nares.  The  variations  in  pitch  are  governed  by  the 
length  of  the  vibrating  surface  of  the  vocal  bands. 

“ The  vocal  bands,  therefore,  are  subject  to  the  same  rule 
as  the  strings  of  a ’cello.  In  the  falsetto  voice,  the  anterior 
two-thirds  of  the  vocal  bands  vibrate  very  closely  in  produc- 
ing two  line  F. 

“ The  false  vocal  hands  must  be  of  great  use  in  the  playing 
of  wind  instruments,  because  of  their  retentive  power  over  the 
expiring  breath.  * * * 


132 


THE  BEALM  OF  3IUSIC. 


“ Music  is  harmonious  motion,  and  penetrates  the  soul  by 
more  ways  than  one,  and  where  phonatioii  does  not  penetrate. 
It  is  a universal  language,  that  reaches  the  heart  and  sympa- 
thetic nerves.  It  is  a soother  and  soporific,  and  thus  takes 
the  place  of  drugs  and  is  preferable  to  them.  For  example, 
when  the  use  of  opiates  is  done  away  with  by  music,  the  ad- 
vantage is  in  the  avoidance  of  the  bad  effects  of  the  ‘ opium 
habit,’  which  may  be  acquired.  The  'music  habit,’  if  I may 
be  allowed  to  use  the  term,  has  nothing  harmful  in  its  effects, 

" Again,  music  is  medicine  to  the  weary  adult,  worn  with 
business,  work,  and  worriment  of  mind.  A prominent  New 
England  clergyman,  tired  out  with  the  duties  of  his  profession, 
tells  me  that  there  is  nothing  so  restful  and  soothing  to  his 
nerves  as  Haydn’s  trios  for  the  piano,  ’cello  and  violin.  I 
can  testify  to  the  same  thing.  May  not  this  explain  the  secret 
charm  of  concerted  music  ? 

" When  the  soul  and  body  are  refreshed  by  the  ‘ music 
medicine,’  we  are  ready  to  take  hold  of  life’s  duties  with  re- 
newed vigor  and  earnestness,  and  double  work  can  be  done 
in  the  same  time  that  it  took  before.  I suppose  music  quiets 
the  sympathetic  nervous  system,  which  does  a great  part  of 
the  nerve  work  of  tlie  body.  The  nerves  of  the  head  (which 
are  voluntary)  when  worried  or  overworked  are  sad  disturb- 
ers of  the  sympathetic  nerves  ( Avhich  are  involuntary  and 
automatic.)  It  is  possible  that  the  agreeable  occupation  of 
the  cerebral  nerve  centers  by  a musical  performance  causes 
them  to  let  the  sympathetic  nerves  alone,  and  to  cease  with- 
drawing, or  rather  stealing,  from  them  the  energy  which  is 
their  share.  However  it  is  done,  the  fact  remains  as  stated, 
that  the  digestive,  circulatory,  secretive,  nutritive,  and  repar- 


MUSIC  AND  MEDICINE.. 


133 


atory  functions  are  l)ctter  performed  wlien  the  sympathetic 
nerves  are  let  alone  and  allowed  to  do  their  work  quietly. 

'‘To  refer  back  to  the  nursery,  when  the  mother  ijistinctively 
sings  her  nursing  baby  to  sleep  on  her  bosom,  lactation  goes 
on  smoothly  and  harmoniously,  and  the  music  soothes  both 
mother  and  child  ; but  let  some  intelligence  of  a startling 
character  suddenly  disturb  the  mother,  the  babe’s  food  is  no 
longer  secreted,  and  it  would  do  anything  but  sleep. 

“1  think  I would  go  so  far  as  to  put  music  in  the  materia 
medica,  after  what  has  been  said  of  it  by  many,  as  a remedy 
for  insomnia,  neurasthenia,  and  melancholia,  as  it  could  l)e 
harmlessly  used  for  any  length  of  time,  ..and  would  be  pleas- 
ant to  all.  * * * 

" An  affecting  story  is  told  of  a child,  about  two  years  of 
age,  in  the  far  west,  who  was  stolen  by  Indians  and  kept  till 
she  was  eight  years  old.  The  parents  made  every  effort  to 
find  the  child,  without  success.  Finally,  an  officer  of  the 
United  States  Army  brought  the  pilfering  tribe  and  the  be- 
reaved parents  together.  After  a time,  the  parents  singled 
out  tlieir  girl  in  lier  savage  costume,  but  could  make  no  im- 
pression on  her  by  which  they  could  certainly  recognize  her. 
The  child  seemed  dazed  and  astonished.  The  mother  began 
to  despair  until  an  older  child  said,  ' Mother,  sing  the  lullaby 
that  you  used  to  sing  to  her  when  a baby.’  The  mother  did 
so.  At  once  the  lost  child  listened,  became  animated,  recog- 
nized her  mother,  and  rushed  into  her  arms.  Certainly  this 
was  a case  where  music  acted  upon  an  enfeebled  memory  as 
a successful  stimulant,  when  speech  had  entirely  failed  to 
elicit  any  response.” 


134 


THE  BEALM  OF  3IUSIC. 


A very  direct  employment  of  music  in  a serious 
illness,  is  thus  described  by  Dr.  Cutter : — 

“Mr.  Thompson,  of  S.  Maw,  Son  & Thompson,  London, 
tells  a story  of  his  son  Willie,  aged  six  years,  moribund  with 
typhoid,  quite  insensible,  abdomen  tympanitic,  pulse  failing, 
and  said  by  his  physicians  ‘ not  to  last  the  night  out.’  Car- 
bohc  acid  was  given  with  some  good  effect,  while  the  doctor 
staid  up  all  night  at  the  bedside  ; but  the  coma  continued. 
Finally  the  father,  knowing  that  the  boy  was  intensely  fond 
of  music,  procured  a nice  large  music  box.  He  asked  his 
son  if  he  would  like  to  hear  it  play.  Xo  response  and  no 
sign  of  recognition.  The  music  box  was  set  agoing.  It  was 
not  long  before  his  countenance  changed  and  his  body  became 
uneasy.  After  awhile  he  turned  over  on  to  his  side.  The 
box  was  put  behind  his  back.  After  another  tune  he  turned 
over  to  it,  and  became  conscious  so  as  to  respond  to  ques- 
tions. ‘ Now  see  here,’  said  Mr.  Thompson,  ‘ this  is  for  your 
own  use,  and  shall  be  called  Willie’s  music  box.’  The  boy 
showed  signs  of  pleasure  and  wished  it  kept  playing.  The 
result  was  continued  reaction  ; he  responded  to  treatment 
and  recovered.” 

In  the  writer’s  own  experience  in  the  course  of 
music  teaching,  he  has  found  singing  a partial  cure 
in  a severe  case  of  St.  Yitus’  dance,  a complete  cure  in 
a case  of  chronic  ulceration  of  the  tonsils,  an  entire 
cure  in  a case  of  consumption  in  the  early  stages, 
and  a palliative  for  stammering. 


ROYAL  MIJSICIANS. 


Although  there  is  no  royal  road  to  music,  yet 
royalty  has  frequently  trod  the  path  of  musical  study. 
Almost  all  potentates  have  felt  it  incuml)ent  upon 
them  to  foster  music  as  one  of  the  line  arts  ; but  the 
number  of  those  who  practically  studied  the  art  is  not 
so  large.  We  shall  not  amplify  upon  the  subject  of 
King  David.  He  has  always  been  regarded  as  the 
representative  of  royal  musicians.  He  probably  did 
for  the  ancient  Egy})tian  music  what  saints  Ambrose 
and  Gregory  did  for  the  Greek  : that  is,  he  system- 
atized and  sim[)litied  it.  But  King  David  is  by  no 
means  the  only  ruler  who  has  used  music  for  re- 
ligious or  patriotic  purposes.  Solon  aroused  the 
Athenians  to  reconquer  Salamis,  by  singing  a song 
descriptive  of  the  humiliation  of  its  people,  and  even 
some  of  the  Egyptian  kings  are  seen  in  the  sculptures 
and  paintings  of  ancient  tombs,  leading  in  songs 
of  thanksgiving.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  monarchs 
of  Europe  esteemed  it  no  degradation  to  become  trou- 
badours, trouveres,  or  minnesingers,  and  few  of  the 
(135) 


136 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


song-composers  of  that  time  but  were  of  noble  birth. 
It  seems  strange,  we  may  add  en passant.,  that  royalty 
always  seems  to  have  cared  more  for  the  vocal  side 
of  music  than  for  any  other. 

Alfonso  X of  Castile,  William  lY  (Count  of 
Poitiers),  and  Richard  I,  (of  England)  were  among 
the  song  musicians  of  these  remote  times.  Even 
before  this  time  England  had  possessed  a musical 
king  in  Canute,  whose  greatest  song  was  inspired  by 
hearing  the  monks  of  Ely  sing  their  vesper  song,  as 
he  was  rowing  on  the  river  at  sunset.  One  can  im- 
agine the  poetic  influence  of  the  scene,  and  the  deli- 
cious effect  of  the  music  of  the  hymn  stealing  over 
the  waters  in  the  haziness  of  a tranquil  twilight.  The 
music  which  they  sang  was  probably  in  unison,  since 
the  barbaric  successions  of  fourths  and  fifths,  which 
were  the  rude  beginnings  of  harmony,  had  not  yet 
been  invented.  The  melody  of  the  song  has  been 
lost  to  us  ; and,  of  the  verses,  but  one  remains.  In 
the  old  Anglo-Saxon , it  runs  : — 

“ Mnrie  snngen  tlie  muneches  Mnnen  Ely 
Tha  Cnute  Ching  reif  ther  by, 

Rowe,  cnihtes,  naew  the  land. 

And  here  we  thes  mnneches  sseng.” 

In  modern  English,  it  would  be  as  follows  : — 

“ Merry  sang  the  monks  at  Ely 
As  King  Canute  rowed  there  by. 


B 0 YA  L M U SIC  I A NS. 


137 


Row,  men,  near  the  land. 

And  hear  we  these  monks  sing.” 

This  song  soon  s])read  among  the  peasantry,  and 
even  l)ecanie  })opular  among  the  higher  orders.  That 
this  was  not  due  to  the  fact  of  the  composer  being 
king  of  England  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  tliat  it  re- 
mained the  most  po])ular  song  of  that  country  for 
some  three  hundred  years. 

Charlemagne  has  never  had  the  credit  he  has  de- 
served, not  as  an  executive  musician,  but  as  a sound 
musical  critic. 

He  always  adopted  King  David  as  his  model,  and 
it  was  therefore  very  natural  that  he  should  give 
much  attention  to  music.  lie  had  singing  very  fre- 
quently at  his  court,  and  often  took  the  j)ost  of  direc- 
tor himself.  On  such  occasions,  it  was  dangerous  for 
any  to  shirk  their  part : whether  they  had  “ a voice  ” 
or  not,  it  was  necessary  for  them  to  join  in  the  chor- 
uses to  some  extent.  lie  preserved  many  of  the  an- 
cient and  legendary  songs  of  France  by  causing  them  to 
be  copied  and  studied  at  his  court.  lie  was  a passion- 
ate admirer  of  the  Gregorian  style  of  ecclesiastical  mu- 
sic, and  caused  it  to  be  generally  introduced  in  France, 
besides  importing  excellent  singers  of  that  method 
from  Rome.  In  short,  France  owes  much  to  his  zeal 
for  music,  although  of  his  own  attainments  in  the  art 
but  little  is  known.  But  France  has  possessed  more 


138 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


than  one  musical  monarch.  Almost  all  her  queens 
were  more  or  less  musical,  and  studied  the  art.  All 
her  monarchs  in  the  latter  part  of  the  royal  line  took 
active  part  in  music  by  becoming  supporters  of  dif- 
ferent schools  and  modes  of  composition.  But  the 
musical  king  of  France,  jpar  excellence^  was  Louis 
XIII,  who  was  remarkably  fond  of  the  art,  and 
divided  his  attention  between  music,  hunting  and 
chess,  in  somewhat  equal  portions.  At  concerts, 
which  were  frequently  given  at  his  court,  very  few 
persons  were  admitted,  and  none  who  did  not  under- 
stand music.  He  would  have  no  ladies  present  at 
his  concerts.  “They  cannot  keep  quiet,”  said  he. 

At  these  little  chamber-concerts,  the  king  was  con- 
ductor, and  usually  closed  the  programme  by  having 
several  of  his  own  songs  produced.  If  these  were 
applauded,  and  they  were  always  sure  to  be,  he 
would  cause  them  to  be  repeated  three  or  four  times, 
a bit  of  vanity  which  may  be  excused  in  a royal  mu- 
sician. One  of  his  works,  and  a charming  one,  has 
come  down  to  our  days,  in  Amaryllis which, 
though  performed  by  many  as  an  instrumental  selec- 
tion, was  originally  a love-song  of  the  quaint,  semi- 
pastoral style  of  that  epoch.* 

* The  instramental  Gavotte,  known  as  “ Amaryllis  ” (arranged 
by  Ghys)  is  wrongly  ascribed  to  Louis  XIII.  Its  true  name  is 
“ Le  Clochette,”  and  it  was  composed  by  Baltazarini  before 
Louis  XIII  was  born. 


IlOYAL  MUSICIANS. 


139 


He  also  composed  considerable  church-music,  on 
one  occasion  writing  an  entire  vesper  service  for  the 
army  besieging  La  Kochelle. 

During  his  last  illness,  he  composed  much  sacred 
music,  which  was  sung  around  his  death-bed  by  his 
courtiers,  he  himself  joining  in  occasionally ; and 
some  of  his  own  music  was  sung  as  his  requiem. 

Among  the  English  kings  after  the  conquest,  we 
find  a few  music-lovers,  but  only  one  real  musician. 
The  dreadful  Bluebeard  of  English  history,  the  man 
who  seems  to  have  been  coarse  by  nature  and  lacking 
in  all  the  finer  attributes,  seems  yet  to  have  been  a 
musician  and  composer  of  considerable  ability.  Henry 
VHI  could  sing  at  sight,  and  could  play  organ,  harp- 
sichord and  lute,  and  could  extemporize  songs,  both 
words  and  music,  in  a very  artistic  manner. 

Queen  Elizabeth  (his  daughter)  seems  to  have  in- 
herited part  of  his  talent ; for  the  pieces  in  her  “ vir- 
ginal-book”* are  of  considerable  difficulty,  and  show 
that  her  music  lessons  were  pursued  with  much 
vigor.  She  seems  to  have  been  quite  vain  of  her 
abilities  in  virginal  playing  (the  only  piano-playing 
of  that  time) , and  was  delighted  when  a courtier  told 

♦Although  it  is  probable  that  this  book  as  we  possess  it  at 
present,  was  copied  out  after  the  queen’s  death,  there  is  little 
doubt  that  Elizabeth  played  most  of  the  pieces  contained  in  its 
pages,  and  some  were  arranged  expressly  for  his  royal  pupil, 
by  Dr.  Byrd. 


140 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Her  that  she  played  better  than  the  Queen  of  Scots, 
of  whom  she  was  always  more  or  less  jealous.  Yet 
she  would  brook  contradiction  from  her  superiors  in 
the  art,  for  on  one  occasion,  after  hearing  Dr.  Chris- 
topher Tye  perform  on  the  organ  in  her  chapel , she 
sent  word  to  him  that  he  played  out  of  tune  (f.  e., 
falsely) , whereupon  that  irascible  musician  sent  back 
word  that  Her  Majesty’s  ears  were  out  of  tune ; 
and  he  does  not  seem  to  have  been  punished  for  the 
retort. 

But  such  bold  answers  have  almost  always  char- 
acterized the  relations  between  musicians  and  royalty. 
Cherubini  was  equally  bold  to  Napoleon,  Mozart  to 
the  Austrian  Emperor,  and  Liszt  to  the  Princess  Met- 
ternich.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  is  said  to  have  been 
a very  fine  musician ; and  there  is  scarcely  a doubt 
that  her  poetical  nature  would  make  her  the  supe- 
rior of  the  more  practical  Queen  Elizabeth  in  this 
art. 

We  have  said  that  royalty  generally  occupied 
itself  with  vocal  music.  There  is  one  very  impor 
tant  exception  to  this  rule,  — Frederic  the  Great — 
who  was  a most  assiduous  flute-player.  He  learned 
this  accomplishment  under  the  most  trying  difficul- 
ties. His  father,  Frederic  I,  was  one  of  the  fierc- 
est and  vulgarest  of  characters,  and  despised  the  fine 
arts  most  cordially,  holding,  as  Macaulay  says,  that 


BOYAL  MUSICIANS. 


141 


the  “ whole  business  of  life  was  to  drill  and  be 
drilled.”  To  give  any  time  to  the  study  of  music 
was  little  short  of  insanity,  in  the  eyes  of  this  do- 
mestic despot,  and  more  than  once  was  the  instru- 
ment broken  over  the  head  of  the  unfortunate  boy. 
Many  anecdotes  are  related  of  the  manner  in  which 
Frederic  was  obliged  to  deceive  his  father.  Ilis 
chief  teacher  was  the  great  flautist,  J.  J.  Quantz, 
who  almost  risked  his  life  by  giving  him  lessons  ; 
for,  when  the  father’s  step  was  heard,  the  flutes  and 
music  were  hurriedly  thrown  into  a closet,  while  the 
teacher  was  once  olfliged  to  save  himself  by  crawling 
up  a chimney.  Quantz  was,  however,  richly  com- 
pensated for  his  risks  when  Frederic  came  to  the 
throne.  He  received  a salary  of  two  thousand  thalers 
as  chamber  musician  and  court  composer,  and  an  ad- 
ditional payment  for  each  composition.  He  spent 
most  of  his  time  in  composing  flute  solos  and  duets 
for  his  royal  pupil. 

As  regards  the  king’s  own  performances,  they 
seem  to  have  been  quite  good,  but  marred  a little  by 
nervousness.  He  was  very  conscientious  in  studying 
any  new  work,  and  felt  much  ashamed  if  he  slipped 
in  any  passage,  or  gave  a false  note.  He  possessed 
a very  large  number  of  flutes, — so  many,  in  fact, 
that  it  was  the  entire  duty  of  a servant  to  take  care 
of  them. 


142 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


It  was,  however,  dangerous  to  play  better  than 
His  Majesty  in  any  flute  duet,  as  he  had  all  the  van- 
ity and  jealousy  of  Nero.  ^ 

Frederic  the  Great  was  not  bounded  in  his  musi- 
cal tastes  wholly  by  flute-playing  or  by  the  works  of 
Quantz.  On  the  contrary,  he  patronized  with  in- 
tense ardor  the  works  of  Graun,  which  at  times  moved 
him  even  to  tears.  The  great  Kirnberger  could  not 
make  any  progress  at  the  Prussian  court  for  a long 
time,  because  the  king  w^ould  sufier  no  rivals  to  his 
favorite  composer.  He  allowed  Graun  more  liberty 
than  was  usual  with  court  musicians.  Once  he  com- 
manded the  composer  to  alter  several  pages  of  an 
opera  which  he  had  just  written.  The  composer  de- 
clined to  do  so,  and  on  the  king’s  furiously  demand- 
ing a reason  for  such  bold  mutiny,  replied,  holding 
the  score  in  his  hand,  “ Ov6r  this  work  I am  king”, 
and  the  claim  was  acknowledged  as  just. 

Frederic’s  sister,  the  Princess  Amalia,  was  also 
an  educated  musician,  but  a very  tart  and  unjust 
critic,  condemning  Gluck,  Schultz,  and  other  able 
musicians,  with  ruthless  censure. 

But  the  list  of  royal  musicians  has  swollen  to  so 
long  an  article  that  we  may  not  dwell  upon  the  nu- 
merous musical  princes,  dukes,  and  lesser  rulers.  We 
may  not  even  detail  the  overweening  musical  conceit 
of  the  Koman  Emperors  Caligula  and  Nero,  these 


n 0 YA  L M U SIC  IANS. 


143 


alone  being  sufficient  to  make  an  amusing  but  lengthy 
article ; we  cannot  detail  the  musical  studies  of 
Titus,  nor  the  useful  songs  composed  by  Chinese 
emperors ; we  cannot  dwell  upon  the  musical  attain- 
ments of  the  emperors  of  Japan;  still  we  hope  to 
have  made  it  apparent  that  music,  the  consoler  of 
grief,  the  friend  of  the  unfortunate,  is  also  a neces- 
sity to  the  rich  and  powerful  of  the  earth. 


MUSICIANS’  FORTUNES 
AND  GENEROSITIES. 


In  some  of  the  essays  oi  this  volume  we  have 
spoken  of  the  jealousies  and  rivalries  among  mu- 
sicians. The  subject  is,  unfortunately,  a very  large 
one,  and  one  that  is  familiar  to  all  who  have  in  any 
degree  become  acquainted  with  the  devotees  of  mu- 
sic. A two-fold  jealousy  exists,  springing  on  the 
one  hand  from  artistic  grounds,  and  on  the  other  from 
what  the  Germans  graphically  call  Brodneid — the 
“bread-earning”  envy. 

Having,  however,  sketched  this  ever-present  flaw  of 
the  musical  character,  it  would  be  an  injustice  not  to 
review  the  other  side  of  the  picture, — the  generosities 
of  artistic  natures,  and  there  have  been  as  conspicu- 
ous displays  of  nobility  of  character  among  composers 
as  of  the  narrowness  and  envy  which  are  so  often 
held  up  as  a reproach  to  our  art. 

That  this  is  recognized  by  solicitors  of  charity  is 
proved  by  the  constant  solicitations  given  to  artists 
to  play  for  churches,  asylums,  hospitals,  etc.,  gratis. 

(144) 


MUSICIANS'  FOllTUNESAND  GENEUOSITIES.  145 


ILindcl’s  music  (the  Messiah  especially)  has 
founded  greater  charities  than  any  ordinary  State  treas- 
ury, and  it  is  pleasant  to  know  that,  besides  being 
great  gifts  to  art,  his  works  became  very  practical 
and  substantial  gifts  to  the  poor  of  England.  But  it 
is  impossible  to  chronicle  the  various  occasions  when 
musicians  have  lent  their  talents  to  obtaining  alms 
for  others  in  this  manner.  Judged  in  this  light, 
the  musician  may  be  called  the  most  charitable  of  all 
artists. 

There  are  also  enough  instances  on  record  of  com- 
posers and  great  musicians  being  generous  to  their 
rivals,  and  this  in  a much  larger  degree  than  is  com- 
mon among  physicians,  painters,  or  litterateurs. 

In  the  last  century,  it  was  not  an  easy  task  for  a 
young  genius  to  receive  proper  education,  unless  pat- 
ronized by  some  nol)leman  who  was  willing  to  bear 
the  attendant  expense.  Yet  Porpora  helped  his  hum- 
ble bootblack  Ilaydn,  to  a good  musical  education  ; 
and  Salieri  assisted  the  shock-headed  peasant-boy, 
Schubert  in  some  degree.  The  last-named  composer, 
was  himself  the  embodiment  of  generosity.  Disap- 
pointed all  through  his  life  in  his  attempts  to  obtain  a 
court  appointment  which  should  lift  him  from  his  bit- 
ter poverty,  he  never  felt  rancor  toward  his  successful 
rivals.  Near  the  close  of  his  career,  when  he  made  his 
last  strong  effort  to  become  vice-capellmeister  to  the 


f 


146  THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 

Austrian  court,  and  the  emperor  chose  the  composer 
Weigl  instead,  Schubert  said  to  his  friend  Spaun,  “ I 
should  have  liked  the  post,  and  I needed  it  ; but 
since  so  able  a man  as  Weigl  has  been  chosen,  I sup- 
pose I ought  to  be  content.” 

Beethoven’s  warm  heart  and  generous  nature  found 
its  chief  outlet  toward  his  unworthy  nephew,  yet  he 
was  far  above  the  atmosphere  of  jealousy.  His  re- 
mark as  he  lay  upon  his  death-bed,  examining  the 
works  of  Handel, — “This  is  the  true  music,” — 
proves  this.  His  acceptance  of  Kies  as  a pupil  (al- 
though he  detested  teaching)  as  a return  for  a kind- 
ness done  to  his  mother  years  before,  shows  that  he 
had  a grateful  nature . Mozart’s  remark  to  a carping 
Viennese  critic, — “ Sir,  you  and  I melted  down  to- 
gether would  not  make  one  Haydn,” — is  but  a reflex 
of  a master’s  generous  spirit.  ' 

Meyerbeer’s  admiration  for  Mozart’s  music  was 
equally  well  marked;  although,  of  course,  here  the 
element  of  equality  disappears. 

We  do  not  find  quite  so  much  generosity  among 
singers  as  among  composers.  Possibly  the  cause  of 
this  is  that  these  artists  are  brought  into  more  direct 
competition  with  each  other,  and  the  success  of  one 
partially  implies  the  failure  of  the  other.  Yet  where 
this  element  of  public  rivalry  is  not  present,  we  find 
that  the  opera  singers  have  often  been  the  most  gen- 
erous and  charitable  of  all  artists. 


MUSICIANS'  FOBTUNES  AND  GENEBOSITIES.  147 


Lablache  was  always  ready  with  purse  and  voice 
to  assist  his  poorer  fellow-artists.  One  day,  a poor 
Italian  came  to  him  with  a pitiful  tale,  and  l)egged  to 
he  sent  hack  to  Italy.  The  next  day  at  rehearsal, 
Lahlache  told  the  case  to  his  fellow-singers,  and  pro- 
posed that  each  give  fifty  francs,  which  was  instantly 
done,  Malll)ran  contrihuting  with  the  rest.  The  next 
day,  however,  the  prinia  donna  came  to  Lahlache 
with  two  hundred  and  fifty  francs  more,  saying  that  she 
did  not  wish  to  seem  ostentatious  at  the  rehearsal, 
hut  hegged  that  Lahlache  would  add  the  money  to 
the  fund.  Lahlache  hastened  to  the  lodgings  of  his 
fellow-countryman  only  to  find  that  he  had  started, 
full  of  jo}^,  for  the  steamer.  Kacing  after  him  to  the 
Thames,  Lahlache  caught  the  steamer  just  as  it  was 
leaving  the  wharf,  and  startled  him  with  the  addi- 
tional gift. 

Malihran  was  especially  noted  for  her  constant 
almsgiving,  although  she  detested  publicity  in  the 
matter. 

Catalani  was  generous  in  a high  degree.  She  never 
would  sing  gratis  for  any  charity,  hut  in  such  cases 
always  made  it  a point  to  subscribe  a sum  to  the  en- 
terprise, which  often  equalled  or  exceeded  her  own 
terms.  In  1821,  she  declined  singing  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  Westminster  Hospital,  as  she  did  not  wish 
to  interfere  with  the  success  of  her  own  concerts 


148 


THE  BEALM  OF  3IUSIC. 


(which  were  to  occur  shortly  after)  by  appearing  pre- 
vious to  them.  But,  after  the  first  of  her  own  series 
had  taken  place,  she  sent  the  managers  nearly  three 
hundred  pounds,  the  result  of  her  concert. 

Pasta  was  not  so  lavish,  yet  was  generous  to  the 
poor. 

But  all  these  good  deeds  pale  before  the  generosi- 
ties of  the  most  modern  musicians  and  composers. 
In  our  times  (and  in  the  preceding  generation)  there 
have  been  great  musicians  who  seemed  to  make  it 
their  duty  not  only  to  foster  art  by  their  own  works, 
but  to  uphold  it  by  pen,  influence  and  purse.  These 
great  ones  have  taken  a broader  view  of  music  than 
any  of  their  predecessors  : they  bring  to  art,  at  times, 
the  highest  possible  sacrifice,  — self-abnegation. 

Highest  in  the  scroll  of  those  who  work  for  art 
with  pure  devotion  must  be  written  the  name  of  that 
celebrated  composer,  critic,  and  virtuoso,  who  stood 
(as  Cherubini  did)  a connecting  link  between  the 
past  and  the  present, — Franz  Liszt.  His  musical 
sympathies,  as  every  one  knows,  were  with  the 
present,  or  rather  with  “the  future;”  yet  every 
struggling  artist  and  rising  composer  found  a willing 
assistant  in  Liszt.  His  position  in  the  music  of 
today  will  undoubtedly  be  disputed  by  many.  The 
conservative  influence  of  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts 
has  always  been  opposed  to  him ; the  worth  of  his 


MUSICIANS^  FORTUNES  AND  GENEROSITIES.  U9 


orchestral  works  is  a moot  point  with  many ; yet 
none  dare  deny  the  rank  of  this  Mecicnas  in  his  devo- 
tion to  music  in  its  broadest  sense. 

To  give  a list  of  the  generous  deeds  of  the  master 
would  fill  a very  long  article.  Ilis  whole  life  was 
devoted  to  fostering  his  less  fortunate  brother  artists. 
The  succoring  of  Pesth,  after  its  inundation  in  1837  ; 
the  completion  of  the  Beethoven  monument ; the 
recognition  of  the  merits  of  Schubert,  by  articles  and 
piano  transcriptions;  the  aiding  of  Robert  Franz, 
first  to  obtain  recognition  as  a composer,  and  subse- 
quently to  a comfortal)le  income  in  his  old  age  ; the 
placing  of  Wagner  on  a pedestal  as  the  leader  of 
the  new  school  ; the  personal  advancement  of  dozens 
of  great  artists  whom  he  received  at  his  former  home 
in  Weimar,  and  advised  and  encouraged  in  their 
musical  career,  — these  are  but  a few  of  the  great 
deeds  of  a man  who  rather  resembled  a prophet 
among  his  disciples  than  a composer  and  teacher  of 
modern  music. 

Only  second  to  the  name  of  Liszt  in  generous 
deeds  for  art  is  that  of  Schumann,  who  was  actuated 
by  the  same  high  principle,  but  had  not  the  ear  of 
princes  and  kings,  as  did  Liszt.  Schumann's  entire 
literary  and  critical  career  was  devoted  to  the  best  in- 
terests of  art  and  the  aid  of  undiscovered  genius. 
Brahms  found  in  him  a friend,  without  whom  he  might 


150 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


' { 


true  and  earnest  adherent, 
real  recognition  in  Schumann. 


To  Franz,  he  was  a 
Berlioz  found  his  first 


Artists  are  proverbially  impecunious  and  spend- 
thrifty,  yet  there  have  been  exceptions  which  stand 
out  in  glaring  contrast  to  the  extravagant  lavishness 
which  is  characteristic  of  almost  all  of  the  tribe. 
Naturally  in  the  older  days,  when  the  position  of  the 
musician  was  a very  humble  one,  thrift  was  forced 
upon  him  in  a manner  that  admitted  of  no  evasion. 
Tempora  mutantur!  How  old  Bach  would  have 
stared  to  have  seen  a musician  as  well  ofi*  as  Wagner 
was  ! Bach  lived  in  the  most  modest  circumstances, 
in  Leipsic,  with  a family  of  a score  of  children,  and 
a most  faithful  and  amiable  wife.  When  he  died,  the 
utmost  economy  could  not  keep  the  widow  out  of  the 
poorhouse,  where  she  died.  Of  his  sons,  Wilhelm 
Friedemann  Bach  was  a spendthrift,  and  most  dissi- 
pated to  boot.  He  died  in  the  gutter,  in  disrepu- 
table old  age.  Philip  Emanuel  Bach  was  careful  and 
prudent,  and  although  not  rich,  died  in  very  com- 
fortable circumstances.  Burney  speaks  of  a visit  to 
him  in  the  last  century  : — 


“ When  I went  to  his  house  I found  with  him  three  or  four 
rational  and  well-bred  persons,  his  friends,  besides  his  own 
family,  consisting  of  Mrs.  Bach,  his  eldest  son,  who  practices 
the  law,  and  his  daughter  (the  youngest  son  studies  painting 


3IUSICIANS^  FORTUNES  AND  GENEROSITIES.  151 


at  the  Academies  of  Leipsic  and  Dresden)  ; the  instant  I 
entered  he  conducted  me  up  stairs  into  a large  and  elegant 
music  room,  furnished  with  pictures,  drawings  and  prints  of 
more  than  a hundred  and  fifty  eminent  musicians  ; among 
whom  are  many  Englishmen,  and  original  portraits  in  oil  of 
his  father  and  grandfather.  After  I had  looked  at  these  M. 
Bach  was  so  obliging  as  to  sit  down  at  his  Silbermann  Clavi- 
chord. * * * After  dinner,  which  was  elegantly  served  and 
cheerfully  eaten,  I prevailed  on  him  to  sit  again  to  a clavi- 
chord.” 

The  above  is  certainly  a good  picture  of  a well-to- 
do  musician’s  home  surroundings,  but  the  quaintest 
statement  of  all  is  made  by  Burney  (although  it  is 
not  relative  to  our  sulqect)  in  the  following  lines  : 
“He  is  learned,  I think,  even  beyond  his  father^ 
whenever  he  pleases,  and  is  far  beyond  him  in  va- 
riety of  modidationr  Certainly  this  puts  poor  John 
Sebastian  well  into  the  background.  John  Christian 
Bach  was  a terrific  spendthrift,  but  a very  lucky  one. 
He  spent  a fortune  in  London,  then  became  music 
teacher  to  the  queen,  spent  another,  then  died,  and 
his  wife  received  a pension  from  the  royal  family 
which  kept  her  from  want. 

]Mozart  was  not  often  spendthrifty,  but  that  was 
chiefly  because  he  had  no  money.  When  he  received 
any  it  flew  quickly  enough,  for  he  was  not  only  gen- 
erous but  he  was  fond  of  society,  and  delighted  in 


152 


THE  BEAL3I  OF  MUSIC. 


festive  gatherings.  Schubert  was  the  most  shiftless 
of  all.  When  he  had  money  he  lived  (alas,  for  the 
briefest  of  periods)  like  a prince,  and  when  it  was 
gone,  he  existed  like  a pauper,  only  to  repeat  the 
first  experience  when  cash  came  back  again.  Once 
after  a period  of  rather  protracted  famine,  he  sold 
several  songs  and  at  once  spent  the  money  on  tickets 
for  Paganini’s  concert  for  himself  and  friends,  at  a 
fabulous  price. 

Speaking  of  Paganini  leads  one  at  once  to  the  re- 
verse of  the  picture.  Paganini  was  a veritable  miser. 
The  grasping  managers  for  once  met  their  match  in 
him,  for  he  would  squeeze  them  like  a sponge.  Yet 
this  grasping  miser  once,  at  least,  gave  way  to 
unbounded  generosity.  It  was  after  he  had  heard 
the  first  performance  of  the  Sinfonie  Fantastique ; 
not  only  did  he  kneel  before  Berlioz  and  kiss  his 
hand,  but  the  next  day  he  sent  him  a check  for 
25,000  francs  ! This  was  so  totally  different  from 
Paganini’s  usual  actions  that  many  who  knew  him 
refused  to  believe  it,  and  even  now  some  histories 
maintain  that  he  was  only  a secret  agent  in  the  mat- 
ter, and  that  the  real  donor  was  a prominent  Parisian 
publisher  who  desired  to  preserve  his  incognito. 

Wagner,  among  modern  musicians,  was  by  turns 
niggardly  and  princely.  At  times  he  demanded  the 
fulfilling  of  rigorous  contracts  even  where  it  brought 


MUSICIANS^  FOB  TUNES  AND  GENEBOSITIES.  15;^ 


ruin  to  innocent  and  too  generous  men ; at  other 
times  he  would  devote  large  sums  and  herculean 
labors  to  the  advancement  of  art.  Ihit  he  was 
generally  selfish  in  his  most  lavish  expenditures. 
Liszt  was  the  true  })rince  in  money  matters.  He 
received  lavish  sums,  and  he  spent  them  lavishly  but 
never  foolishly.  His  hand  was  ever  in  his  purse  to 
help  some  brother  artist.  Wagner  received  benefits 
both  from  his  purse  and  pen,  afterwards  gladly  repaid. 

With  one  amusing  anecdote  of  closeness  and  its 
revenge  we  may  dismiss  this  l)ranch  of  our  sul)ject. 
It  concerns  a much  humbler  member  of  the  profes- 
sion than  those  we  have  named  above.  Pfund  the 
kettle-drummer  (and  Pfund,  which  is  German  for 
“ Pound,”  seems  a very  good  name  for  a drummer), 
was  rather  more  than  a trifle  “ near,”  yet  once  iii  a 
fit  of  generosity  he  had  lent  a brother  musician  a 
dollar.  Immediately  that  this  rashly  generous  act 
had  been  eonsummated  he  repented  deeply  of  his 
folly.  Constantly  he  urged  the  recalcitrant  debtor 
to  repay.  Finally  the  ingenious  l)orrower  determined 
to  pay  his  debt  in  a memora])le  manner.  They  were 
both  members  of  the  Gewandhaus  Orchestra.  The 
debtor  obtained  a dollar’s  worth  j)fen nig e (n  pfen- 

nig is  a quarter  of  a cent)  and  going  upon  the 
eoncert  platform  just  before  the  beginning  of  the  per- 
formance, he  arranged  the  little  coins  upon  the  kettle- 


154 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


drum  head.  Pfund,  near-sighted  and  somewhat  in  a 
hurry,  came  to  his  instrument ; the  performance  be- 
gan, a single  drum  stroke  and  — crash! — the  dollar 
was  scattered  all  over  the  platform.  Poor  Pfund 
demanded  repayment  in  vain,  the  exdebtor  justly 
saying  that  he  had  placed  the  money  where  he  knew 
his  creditor  would  he  sure  to  find  it. 

Few  musicians  have  ever  attained  great  wealth. 

Probably  Nero  the  emperor  of  Pome,  was  the 
richest  musician  that  ever  lived,  but  it  may  be  con- 
tended that  he  did  not  make  his  wealth  in  the 
musical  profession.  Yet  this  is  only  partially  true, 
for  many  of  his  courtiers  were  glad  to  curry  favor 
with  him  by  flattering  his  musical  vanity,  paying 
him  enormous  sums  for  his  professional  services,  and 
he  is  said  once  to  have  received  a sum  equivalent  to 
$30,000  for  one  night’s  musical  services,  which  puts 
the  prices  paid  to  a Patti  to  the  blush. 

Among  the  great  composers  of  the  old  school  we 
seek  in  vain  for  a wealthy  man.  Palestrina  lived  and 
died  poor  although  not  in  extreme  poverty.  Di  Lasso 
came  the  nearest  to  being  a rich  man,  because  of  the 
constant  friendship  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria.  Handel 
lost  a fortune  in  trying  to  establish  Italian  opera  in 
London,  but  subsequently  regained  more  than  this 
amount  b}^  the  great  success  of  his  oratorios.  His 
friend  Mattheson  was  wealthy,  but  made  his  fortune 


MUSICIANS'  FOliTUNES  AND  GENEj^oSITIES.  155 


rather  in  diplomatic  service  than  in  music.  Bee- 
thoven died  at  least  out  of  the  reach  of  poverty,  spite 
of  the  fact  that  he  represented  himself  as  very  poor 
to  those  who  came  to  him  in  his  last  illness.  After 
his  death  there  were  several  bank  certificates  and 
bonds  found  hidden  away  in  odd  corners  of  his  cham- 
ber. Mozart  died  so  poor  that  he  was  buried  in  the 
common  grave  in  the  Vienna  cemetery  and  all  trace 
of  his  body  has  been  lost,  although  there  is  a certain 
doctor  in  Germany  who  claims  to  possess  his  skull. 
Wagner  was  a representative  of  the  two  extremes, 
wealth  and  poverty.  In  Paris  at  one  time  he  felt  the 
direct  pinch  of  want,  and  no  musical  work  was  too 
humble  for  him  to  try.  He  arranged  cornet  solos, 
four-hand  adaptations  of  operas,  and  even  tried  to  get 
an  engagement  as  a chorus  singer  in  one  of  the  cheap 
Boulevard  theatres.  When,  years  afterwards,  he 
became  the  intimate  friend  of  King  Louis  of  Bavaria 
(it  may  be  remembered  that  it  was  at  this  court, 
centuries  before,  Orlando  di  Lasso  won  wealth  and 
renown)  Wagner  lived  as  a prince.  In  Venice 
where  he  spent  the  vacation  that  terminated  in  his 
death,  he  had  a retinue  of  servants  and  attendants,  a 
family  tutor,  etc.,  and  he  lived  in  a palace  fit  for  a 
king ; when  he  composed  his  study  was  decorated  to 
correspond  with  the  subject  on  which  he  was  at  work, 
and  laces,  fine  velvets,  flowers  and  perfumes  lent  their 


156 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


aid  in  stimulating  the  inspiration  of  the  great  com- 
poser of  music  drama.  The  picture  is  in  vivid  con- 
trast to  poor  Schubert  dying  almost  alone,  and  to 
Mozart  buried  like  a pauper,  but  Wagner  was  the 
modern  exception,  and  there  are  today  more  poor 
and  struggling  musical  talents  and  perhaps  geniuses 
than  there  ever  have  been  wealthy  musicians. 

What  with  the  frequent  interchange  of  artists  and 
conductors  between  America  and  Europe  it  becomes 
an  interesting  subject  to  study  how  compensation  and 
work  compare  among  the  musical  profession  on  the 
two  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  Salaries  are  undoubtedly 
higher  in  America  than  in  Germany,  but  by  no  means 
in  so  great  a degree  as  is  thought.  The  leaders  in 
music  abroad  receive  perhaps  thirty  or  forty  per  cent, 
less  than  they  could  earn  here,  but  two  facts  must  be 
set  against  this ; firstly,  the  purchasing  power  of 
money  is  much  greater  in  Europe  than  it  is  with  us, 
and,  secondly  the  position  of  a great  musician  is 
more  agreeable,  more  universally  respected  and  ad- 
mired, in  Germany  or  France  than  in  America.  Thus 
Kapellmeister  Keinecke , living  in  his  flat  in  the  third 
story  of  a house  in  the  Quer-Strasse  in  Leipsic,  is 
sought  out  by  the  aristocracy,  is  prized  and  respected 
beyond  the  plutocrats  who  live  in  whole  palaces. 
Besides  our  country  is  rather  young  yet  in  music  and 
painting,  and  one  does  not  find  as  much  communion 


MUSICIANS^  FORTUNES  AND  GENEROSITIES.  157 


among  kindred  spirits  and  co-workers  in  America  as 
abroad.  When  one  sees  Reinecke  in  Leipsic,  Rhein- 
berger  in  Munich,  or  Svendsen  in  Copenhagen,  sur- 
rounded by  a coterie  of  fellow  laborers  in  music, 
when  jest,  and  earnest  comparison  and  comment  pass 
about  the  board,  while  geniality  and  calm  content- 
ment hover  over  them  all,  the  question  as  to  why 
more  of  the  great  foreign  musicians  do  not  come  to 
America  is  answered ; but  whichever  side  of  the  At- 
lantic is  searched,  there  is  more  chance  of  finding  a 
pterodactyl  or  a plesiosaurus  than  a rich  musician. 


A STRANGE  SINGING 
TEACHER. 


At  last,  the  student  had  reached  his  ambition. 
He  had  studied  various  methods  of  voice  culture  and 
vocal  technique  in  his  native  land,  and  had  how  come 
abroad  to  have  the  finishing  touches  given  to  his 
organ. 

The  road  to  Naples  was  rough  and  dusty,  and  it  is 
not  surprising  that  the  young  singer  fell  asleep  be- 
fore he  entered  the  city.  Once  within  its  precincts, 
he  immediately  set  about  finding  the  leading  conserv- 
atory, where  he  hoped  that  his  earnestness  and  zeal 
would  make  him  heartily  welcomed.  He  was  as- 
tonished to  find  the  building  a prison-like,  monastic 
edifice,  but,  nothing  daunted,  knocked  at  the  gate. 
The  attendant  who  opened  it  stared  with  curiosity  at 
the  garb  of  the  young  man,  and  was  amazed  at  his 
desire  to  see  the  voice-builder  of  the  establishment. 
‘ ‘ You  mean  our  maestro  di  canto ^ our  singing  master,” 
said  he  : “ follow  me,  then.'’ 

In  a moment,  the  singer  found  himself  before  a 
(158) 


A .SfTIiAN'aE  SINGING  TEACHER. 


151) 


rather  sour-looking  old  man,  in  periwig  and  knee- 
breeches,  who  received  him  in  anything  but  a gra- 
cious manner. 

“What  have  you  learned  already?”  asked  the 
master. 

“ I have  studied  various  methods,”  responded  the 
student.  “ What  manner  of  breathing  do  you  pre- 
fer that  I should  use, — the  abdomino-costal,  the 
pure  abdominal,  or  the  clavicular?” 

The  singing-master  turned  pale,  and  made  an  in- 
voluntary movement  toward  the  door,  but  finally 
recovered  himself  sufficiently  to  say,  “ If  you  have 
made  any  improvements  in  the  manner  of  breathing 
I shall  he  glad  to  listen  to  all  of  them  ; but  I wished 
to  know  what  you  have  attained  in  solfeggio.” 

“ Oh,  for  the  matter  of  that,”  replied  the  appli- 
cant, “ I have  scarcely  thought  much  about  solfeggi. 
I have  given  great  attention  to  the  production  of  tone 
as  a science.” 

“ Methinks  there  is  much  ‘ method  ’ in  this  mad- 
ness,” muttered  the  singing-master. 

“ I have  studied  all  the  philosophy  of  vocal  phona- 
tion,”  continued  the  other;  “ and,  in  the  physiology 
of  the  voice,  I am  about  perfect.  But  perhaps  you 
would  like  to  examine  my  throat  first  with  a laryngo- 
scope.” 

“I  have  never  seen  one,”  sighed  the  teacher; 
you  speak  altogether  in  riddles.” 


160 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


“What,”  exclaimed  the  now  thoroughly  aroused 
student,  “ you  have  never  seen  the  interior  of  a liv- 
ing throat!  Well,  at  least,  you  have  examined 
plenty  of  dead  ones,  I suppose.” 

“ God  forbid  ! ” said  the  master,  with  a shudder. 
‘ ‘ Have  Amu  received  your  vocal  education  in  a hospi- 
tal?” 

“ I am  proud  to  say  that  half  my  time  has  been 
spent  in  the  dissecting  room.” 

“Have  you  advanced  your  execution  or  attained 
brilliant  Jioriture  there  ? ” 

“ No;  but  I have  gained  a knowledge  of  all  the 
small  muscles  of  the  throat,  and  have  memorized  all 
their  names.” 

“ Can  you  use  them  artistically,  because  you  have 
catalogued  them  ? ” inquired  the  teacher. 

“ No,  but  I can  attain  much  more  eminence  in  my 
profession  as  a teacher,  and  I shall  be  able  to  oper- 
ate on  the  throats  of  my  pupils  with  more  facility.  I 
have  already  cut  off  six  or  seven  tonsils.” 

“What,”  shrieked  the  teacher,  “you  improve  a 
throat  by  mutilation  ! I suppose  you  would  also 
cure  a headache  by  cutting  off  a man’s  head.” 

‘ ‘ What  method  then  do  you  use  in  singing  ? ” in- 
quired the  pupil. 

“Work!  The  way  to  learn  singing  is  to  sing. 
Gradual,  very  gradual,  exercise  strengthens  the 


ci  STUAXGE  SINGING  TEACHER. 


161 


lungs  and  eveiy  throat  inusclo,  as  gradual  exercise 
makes  the  dexterity  of  the  fencer  or  the  power  of  the 
athlete.  A pure,  natural  tone  will  grow  in  strength 
by  continued  use  : an  artificial  one  will  not.  Power 
and  endurance  come  by  carefully  graded  work.  Flex- 
ibility by  unremitting  perseverance  in  solfeggio  stud- 
ies, which  must  be  adapted  to  the  style  and  ability 
of  each  individual  voice.  I go  as  near  to  nature  as 
I can  : you  try  to  nbolish  it  altogether.  I keep  the 
voice  in  easy  compass,  in  its  most  natural  notes, 
until,  by  the  constant  practice  of  these,  growth  fol- 
lows of  itself,  and  I am  able  to  extend  the  exercises. 
I never  make  more  demands  upon  the  voice  than  it 
can  easily  fulfil ; and,  as  it  grows,  I increase  my 
demands.  I do  not  distract  the  attention  of  any 
student,  even  by  the  statement  of  a fact,  if  that 
fact  is  likely  to  draw  his  thought  away  from  the 
plain  road  of  natural  study,  in  good,  healthy  tones. 
If  he  produces  such  tones,  I do  not  give  him  a six 
hours’  oration  as  to  hoiu  he  produces  them.  In  fact 
I am  afraid  I do.  not  know  that  myself.  There  is 
possibly  much  that  is  good  in  your  style  of  study ; 
but  you  have  pushed  the  analytical  process  too  far, — 
you  suffer  from  too  much  method.  Your  too  strict  at- 
tention to  physiology  and  anatomy,  and  too  lax  at- 
tention to  music  is  apt  to  make  vocal  surgeons  rather 
than  artistic  singers  ; and  I,  who  am,  after  all,  only 


162 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


a musician,  have  greater  and  better  pupils  than  all 
your  sanguinary  theoretical  teachers  put  together.” 

“Who  are  you,  then  ?”  cried  the  now  somewhat 
frightened  student,  as  the  old  teacher  began  slowly 
to  grow  hazy  around  the  edges,  and  to  dissolve  into 
thin  air. 

“ I am  the  ghost  of  Porpora,”  whispered  the  now 
half-invisible  spectre. 

The  student  gave  a shriek  in  the  highest  register, 
and  so  far  forgot  himself  as  not  to  think  of  the  style 
of  breathing  by  which  he  produced  it,  and  then 
— awoke. 

He  was  not  in  Naples ; he  had  not  yet  achieved  a 
great  American  reputation  : he  was  sitting  in  a dazed 
condition  in  the  church  choir ; he  had  fallen  asleep 
after  having  sung  the  second  hymn,  and  the  minister 
had  only  got  along  in  his  sermon  as  far  as  “ sixthly.” 


MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS 
AND  THEIR  EPOCHS. 


It  is  an  interesting  study  to  the  musical  historian 
to  watch  the  rise  and  fall  of  certain  instruments  in 
different  epochs.  The  trumpet  for  example  from 
mediaeval  times  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
was  the  favorite  instrument  of  gentlemen.  This 
probably  arose  from  the  fact  that  the  heralds,  who 
were  body  servants  of  kings  and  princes,  played  this 
instrument ; guilds  of  trumpeters  were  established 
in  which  many  of  the  nobility  were  enrolled,  and 
these  guilds  existed  even  in  the  last  century.  This 
state  of  affairs  led  to  such  perfection  of  trumpet- 
playing that  the  artists  of  Handel’s  time  could  play 
passages  on  the  natural  trumpet  which  were  al- 
most impossible  fifty  years  later ; in  fact,  Mozart 
was  obliged  to  simplify  the  trumpet  obligato  in 
“The  trumpet  shall  sound”  in  the  “Messiah,”  in 
order  that  it  might  be  played  by  the  musicians  of 
his. day.  In  all  the  works  of  Beethoven,  Mozart  and 
Weber,  there  is  not  a single  difficult  trumpet  passage. 

(1633 


164 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


But  Wagner  and  Berlioz  by  their  pompous  works  led 
to  a renascence  of  trumpet-playing,  and  today  al- 
though the  natural  trumpet  is  passing  away,  the 
keyed  trumpet,  at  least  in  Europe,  finds  many  per- 
formers of  much  excellence. 

The  oboe  had  its  period  of  extreme  prominence 
during  the  last  century.  One  can  scarcely  exagger- 
ate the  liking  for  this  instrument  among  our  fore- 
fathers. Handel  wrote  six  concertos  for  it,  and  gave 
it  prominence  in  almost  all  his  instrumentation. 
Bach  used  it  almost  as  freely.  Besides  the  modern 
oboe  there  were  other  oboes  which  have  become  ob- 
solete; the  oboe  d'amore  for  example,  which  was  by 
no  means  a very  “ lovely  oboe,”  for  it  screamed  like 
a veritable  bag-pipe,  and  the  oboe  di  caccia  which 
had  a tone  not  unlike  an  English  horn.  The  English 
horn  itself  seems  to  have  had  its  ups  and  downs  for 
it  dropped  out  of  use  during  the  classical  epoch. 
Gluck,  to  be  sure,  employed  it,  but  was  not  able  to 
get  any  especial  efiect  from  its  use,  while  Mozart  and 
Weber  never  admitted  it  to  their  scores,  and  Beethoven 
only  used  it  once  (and  even  here  it  is  doubtful  if  he 
meant  the  real  Corno  Inglese)  In  his  trio.  Op.  87, 
with  two  oboes,  a strange  combination,  and  on  the 
whole  rather  a prolix  and  uninspiring  work.  It  was 
Berlioz,  Schumann,  Rossini  and  Wagner  who  really 
brought  in  the  English  horn  with  due  knowledge  of 


3IUSIGAL  INSTRU3IENTS  AND  TIIEIll  EPOCHS.  ] 05 


its  tone  color,  and  in  many  of  their  works  one  finds 
this  large-sized  ol)oe  [)laying  the  part  of  Al[)inc  horn 
or  Shepherd’s  pipe.  Meanwhile,  in  the  last  century 
the  clarinet  was  knocking  at  the  door  of  the  orches- 
tra in  vain,  until  Mozart  opened  the  gate  for  it  in  his 
E-flat  symphony  and  his  clarinette  quintette. 

Many  of  the  humbler  instruments  lay  quiescent 
until  Beethoven  discovered  their  possil)ilities.  It 
was  Beethoven  who  elevated  the  kettle-drums,  and 
the  contra-bass  from  comparative  obscurity,  and  he 
also  gave  to  the  horn  a new  significance.  The  harp 
was  naturally  not  employed  by  the  old  composers 
much,  for  it  was  a semi-diatonic  instrument.  It  was 
only  in  1810  that  Erard  made  of  it  a truly  orchestral 
instrument  capable  of  modulation,  but  it  is  a popu- 
lar error  to  suppose  that  it  could  not  modulate  at  all 
before  this  for  Mozart  wrote  a concerto  for  harp  and 
flute,  and  Gluck  was  obliged  to  use  it  in  his  great 
opera  of  Orpheus.  Burney  in  his  interesting  book  of 
musical  travels  (1772)  says  : 

“ At  Brussels  I heard  a young  lady  play  extremely 
well  on  the  harp  with  pedals.  * * ^ * The  harp  is 
very  much  played  on  by  the  ladies  here  and  at  Paris. 
It  is  a sweet  and  becoming  instrument,  and,  by 
means  of  pedals  for  the  half  notes,  is  less  cumbrous 
and  unwieldy  than  our  double  Welsh  harp.  ^ ^ * 

There  are  but  thirty-three  strings  on  it,  which,  except 


166 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


the  last,  are  mere  natural  notes  of  the  diatonic 
scale  ; the  rest  are  made  by  the  feet.  This  method 
of  producing  the  half-tones  on  the  harp  by  means 
of  pedals  was  invented  at  Brussels  about  fifteen  years 
ago,  (circa  1756)  by  M.  Simon  who  still  resides  in 
that  city ; it  is  an  ingenious  and  useful  contrivance 
in  more  respects  than  one,  for,  by  reducing  the  num- 
ber of  strings  the  tone  of  those  that  remain  is  im- 
proved.” 

The  invention  seems  to  have  travelled  slowly,  for 
at  Vienna,  the  traveller  heard  another  kind  of  harp 
performance,  of  which  he  says  : — 

“ M.  Mut,  a good  performer,  played  a piece  upon 
the  single  harp  without  pedals,  which  makes  it  a very 
difficult  instrument,  as  the  performer  is  obliged  to 
make  the  semitones  by  brass  rings  with  the  left  hand 
which  being  placed  at  the  top  of  the  harp,  are  not 
only  hard  to  get  at,  but  disagreeable  to  hear, 
from  the  noise,  which,  by  a sudden  motion  of  the 
hand  they  occasion.  The  secret  of  producing  the 
semitones  by  pedals  is  not  yet  arrived  in  Vienna.” 

In  this  interesting  work  we  can  also  find  some  de- 
tails about  the  earliest  use  of  cymbals.  They  had 
evidently  but  recently  come  into  European  music 
from  the  East,  for  the  writer  deemed  it  necessary  to 
give  a full  description  of  a pair  he  heard  in  France. 
He  calls  them  “ Crotolo,’’^  and  says  that  the  ancients 


MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS  AND  THEIR  EPOCHS.  1G7 


called  the  same  instrument  ‘ ‘ Cymbalum The  Turks 
were  the  first  among  the  moderns  who  used  it  in  their 
military  bands. 

The  above  instruments  are  by  no  means  the  only 
ones  which  have  had  their  period  of  rise  and  fall,  but 
sufficient  has  been  said  to  show  that  as  the  very 
structure  of  music  changes  from  age  to  age,  so  the 
instruments  themselves  are  changing  and  are  under- 
going their  periods  of  popularity  and  decadence. 

There  is  more  of  true  art  in  the  manufacture  of  a 
fine  musical  instrument  than  is  generally  recognized 
by  the  public  at  large.  When  a man  designs  a beau- 
tiful edifice,  his  public  worth  is  at  once  acknowledged, 
but  the  building  of  a perfect  violin  or  a rich-toned 
piano  is  scarcely  less  valuable  to  the  world,  and  the 
designer  and  maker  of  such  a thing  is  as  fully  entitled 
to  enter  the  ranks  of  those  priests  of  the  beautiful, 
called  artists,  as  if  he  had  planned  a temple  or  cre- 
ated a poem.  When  in  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries  a set  of  men,  thoroughly  in  love  with 
their  work,  brought  the  violin  to  a standard  far  above 
the  crude  instrument  of  preceding  ages,  they  did  as 
much  toward  the  advancement  of  one  branch  of 
music,  as  if  they  had  been  Paganinis  or  Joachims  ; 
for,  given  the  ideal  instrument,  the  great  performers 
upon  it  were  sure  to  follow. 

The  old  spinets,  or  virginals,  or  harpsichords, 


168 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


brought  forth  a school  of  composers,  and  the  quaint 
and  pretty,  demi-staccato  vein  of  a Scarlatti  or  a 
Couperin,  must  also  be  derived  in  some  degree  from 
the  inventions  of  a liuckers. 

In  like  manner,  the  creation  of  the  grand  piano 
brought  in  its  train  no  less  a work  than  the  greatest 
sonata  ever  composed  — Beethoven’s  vast  ‘ ‘ Senate 
fiir  Hammerclavier  ” in  B flat.  Op.  106.  Of  course  it 
took  a great  master  to  produce  such  a work,  but  it 
required  a coadjutor  in  the  shape  of  an  intelligent 
inventor  and  manufacturer  to  make  it  at  all  possible, 
and  this  humbler  collaborator  is  too  often  relegated 
to  the  commercial  field  altogether,  and  denied  ad- 
mittance into  the  domain  of  art. 

If  one  speaks  of  harp-music  to  the  musician  he  at 
once  thinks  of  the  effects  brought  forth  by  Gluck, 
Mozart,  Spohr,  Berlioz  and  Wagner,  but  of  the 
name  of  Simon  he  knows  nothing  ; yet  Simon  (as  we 
have  seen)  first  lifted  the  harp  from  the  diatonic 
character  which  it  had  possessed  since  ancient  Egyp- 
tian days,  and  which  made  it  useless  to  the  modern 
composer. 

In  the  same  manner  Boehm  has  done  as  much  for 
the  flute  as  Kuhlau  or  any  of  the  flute  composers,  for 
he  has  given  entrance  to  all  keys,  and  has  practi- 
cally added  a new  tone  color  to  the  instrument  by 
the  rapidity  and  brightness  consequent  upon  his  sys- 
tem of  keying. 


MUSICAL  IXSTBUMENTS  AND  THE  Hi  EPOCHS.  K;<) 


Adolph  Sax  has  done  the  same  great  service  in  the 
keying  of  l)iass  instruments  and  Adeprecht  has 
helped  the  brass  wind  to  a better  standing  by  bring- 
ing forward  the  Bass  Tuba  to  take  the  j)lace  of  the 
hideous,  wooden  serpent,  or  the  rasping  ophicleide, 
which  were  the  bass  instruments  of  this  department, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  century. 

If  we,  in  America,  have  not  yet  added  any  names 
to  the  list  of  the  world’s  great  masters  in  composi- 
tion, we  have  at  least  done  very  much  to  advance 
music  by  the  improvement  of  musical  instruments. 
The  iron  bed-plate,  and  the  sostenuto  pedal,  of  the 
piano,  have  been  given  to  the  world  from  this  side  of 
the  Atlantic  ; and  in  the  careful  building  of  the  grand 
piano  there  are  today  some  American  firms  who 
have  taught  the  European  manufacturers  a lesson. 
In  violins  too  we  possess  at  least  one  manufac- 
turer who  can  claim  the  title  of  artist,  and  whose  in 
struments  may  some  day  rank  with  even  the  Cremona 
violins. 

But  the  intent  of  this  article  is  not  the  glorifi- 
cation of  America  in  musical  manufactures,  but  rather 
the  insistance  upon  the  idea  that  the  careful  manu- 
facturer, and  the  enthusiastic  inventor,  in  the  instru- 
mental field,  should  be  remembered  almost  as  great 
artists  and  composers  are. 

When  one  speaks  of  Bach,  Beethoven,  Wagner,  or 


170  the  bealm  of  music. 

Mozart,  let  not  Stradivarius,  Erard,  Boehm,  or  Sax, 
be  forgotten. 


THE  WIVES  OF  THE  GREAT 
COMPOSERS. 


In  the  history  of  music  there  has  been  one  branch 
that  has  been  singularly  neglected  ; it  is  the  influence 
that  has  been  exerted  upon  the  great  composers  by 
their  wives.  Some  of  the  tone  masters  have  been 
singularly  happy  in  their  domestic  relations,  and 
some,  unfortunately,  have  been  quite  the  reverse; 
some  of  them  have  never  entered  the  bonds  of  wed- 
lock, and  others  have  essayed  them  more  than  once, 
while  others  again  have  regretted  that  they  ever 
entered  them  at  all.  None  the  less  the  happiness  or 
unhappiness  of  the  family  relation  has  undoubtedly 
had  a direct  influence  upon  the  creations  which  have 
emanated  from  the  masters,  and  a history  of  the  wives 
of  the  composers  would  be  of  interest  to  many  who 
desire  to  gauge  the  influence  of  women  in  music  with 
some  degree  of  accuracy.  The  history  of  women  as 
composers  would  be  a remarkably  short  one,  for 
among  the  millions  who  have  studied,  not  a half- 
dozen  have  made  an  impression  upon  the  art  from  its 
(171) 


172 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


creative  side.  The  wife  of  Robert  Franz  (Hinrichs 
was  her  maiden  name)  was  a composer  of  excellent 
lieder,  yet  the  songs  she  produced  are  scarcely  known 
to  the  present  generation.  In  England,  Agnes  Zim- 
mermann  has  given  forth  some  creditable  part  music  ; 
Mme.  Helen  Hopekirk  may  be  counted  in  the  ranks  of 
the  producers  of  the  smaller  forms ; Mrs.  Beach  has 
accomplished  good  work  in  America ; but  in  France 
for  the  first  time,  a woman  has  made  a sensation  in 
the  large  forms  by  producing  a great  “ Ode  to  Lib- 
erty ! ” in  full  cantata  form.  Whether  the  great 
work  of  Augusta  Holmes  will  take  permanent  rank 
among  cantatas  remains  to  be  seen,  but  at  least  the 
attempt  should  interest  all  who  have  watched  the 
musical  progress  of  women.  Meanwhile  Clara  Schu- 
mann is  at  the  head  of  a small  band  of  female  com- 
posers, and  even  with  her  the  success  is  no^  a 
remarkable  one,  for  when,  some  years  ago,  a concert 
composed  entirely  of  her  works  was  given,  the  result 
was  in  some  degree  soporific.  Clara  Schumann,  if 
not  taking  highest  rank  as  a composer,  deserves  the 
highest  place  as  a composer’s  wife,  for  she  devoted 
her  existence  to  making  her  husband’s  works  known 
while  he  was  alive,  and  to  building  up  his  fame 
when  he  was  dead.  The  passion  which  Schumann 
conceived  for  Clara  Wieck  led  to  the  composition  of 
some  of  his  finest  piano  works,  and  the  happy  end  of 


THE  WIVES  OF  THE  GREAT  COMPOSERS.  173 


his  great  trials,  by  marriage,  l)rought  forth  the  two 
finest  cycles  of  songs  ever  composed  — the  “ Wom- 
an’s Life  and  Love  ” and  “ Poet’s  Love,” — in  Avhich  he 
endeavored  to  portray  the  great  affection  which  had 
moved  them,  both  from  the  male  and  female  point  of 
view.  To  his  happy  marriage,  also,  can  be  traced 
the  production  of  his  finest  symphony  — that  in  B- 
fiat  — and  therefore  to  Clara  Schumann,  the  world 
indirectly  owes  some  of  the  masterpieces  of  our  art. 
The  story  of  their  affection  is  as  interesting  and 
pathetic  as  that  of  the  loves  and  lives  of  Heloise  and 
Abelard,  or  of  Petrarch  and  his  Laura,  and  is  a far 
loftier  theme  than  the  absurd  sentimentalities  about 
the  “Moonlight  sonata,”  the  “Adieu,”  and  other 
episodes  in  the  lives  of  composers,  which  have  crept 
into  history,  and  which,  moreover,  had  their  origin 
onlv  in  the  minds  of  imaginative  biographers.  That 
Schumann’s  insanity  had  its  origin  in  the  mental  dis- 
tress he  went  through  in  winning  his  Avife,  is  by 
no  means  established,  for  melancholia  Avas  hereditary 
in  his  family  and  even  before  this  episode  had  begun, 
the  seeds  of  mental  alienation  had  taken  root.  That 
they  germinated  so  late,  is  probably  due  to  the  happy 
life  Avhich  he  led  Avith  his  noble  Avife. 

In  one  respect  Cosima  Wagner  resembles  Clara 
Schumann  ; she  is  devoting  her  Avhole  life  of  AvidoAV- 
hood  to  the  extension  of  the  theories  of  her  late  hus- 


174 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


band.  But  there  the  resemblance  ends.  Wagner 
was  not  a nature  to  be  influenced  in  his  composition'* 
even  by  those  whom  he  held  dearest,  and,  while 
Clara  Schumann  directly  evoked  some  of  the  great 
works  of  her  husband,  no  such  immediate  connection 
can  be  traced  between  the  compositions  of  Wagner 
and  his  wife,  save  in  the  case  of  the  “ Siegfried 
Idylle,”  which  was  composed  by  the  master  to  cele- 
brate her  love,  their  son  Siegfried,  and  the  happy 
days  they  spent  in  Switzerland. 

Wagner  was  twice  married  ; his  first  wife,  a singer 
in  one  of  the  theatres  where  Wagner  directed,  was  a 
great  beauty,  and  a loving,  self-sacrificing  nature. 
She  bore  actual  poverty  with  her  husband  in  the  dark 
days  when  he  struggled,  unrecognized,  in  Paris. 
Unfortunately  she  was  unable  to  comprehend  the 
scope  of  Wagner’s  genius,  and  this  created  an  abyss 
between  the  pair  which  all  her  affection  was  unable 
to  bridge  over,  and  poor  Minna  Planer  was  sacrificed 
on  the  altar  of  that  genius.  They  separated,  and 
soon  after  her  death,  the  composer  married  the 
divorced  wife  of  von  Billow,  a nature  which  fully 
undei'stood  his  artistic  aims  and  which  proved  a ver- 
itable helpmate  to  him  in  his  subsequent  career.  The 
union  was  a very  happy  one,  and  never  could  Wag- 
ner, both  as  a composer  and  man,  have  met  with 
more  absolute  recognition  than  he  did  at  the  hands 


THE  WIVES  OF  THE  GBEAT  COMPOLEBS.  175 


of  bis  second  wife.  lie,  too,  gave  her  a greater 
affection  than  be  had  ever  shown  to  human  being 
before . 

Bach  was  twice  married  and  had  a family  of  more 
than  a score  of  children,  twelve  sons,  one  of  them 
(Wilhelm  Friedemann)  a genius,  four  of  them  great 
musicians  and  composers,  and  one  an  idiot.  The 
children  of  the  first  wife  seem  to  have  possessed  the 
most  remarkable  talents.  Bach  left  her  at  one  time 
to  go  on  a short  tour  ; she  was  in  perfect  health  when 
he  departed,  but  when  he  returned  she  was  in  the 
grave.  The  entire  domestic  life  of  the  old  composer 
was  like  that  of  a Scriptural  patriarch.  He  lived 
tranquilly  amid  his  large  family,  trusting  in  God, 
and  singing  His  praises  in  loftiest  music.  He  soon 
married  again,  and  seems  to  have  lived  as  peacefully 
with  his  second  wife  as  with  his  first.  When  he  died, 
the  large  family  was  obliged  to  disperse,  to  earn  their 
l)read,  for  the  great  composer  was  very  poor.  The 
widow,  now  grown  old,  had  nowhere  to  turn  for  aid, 
and  to  the  everlasting  disgrace  of  the  city  of  Leipsic, 
which  Bach  had  served  so  long  and  well,  she  was 
obliged  to  end  her  days  in  the  poorhouse  there. 
It  is  a strange  fact  that  the  family  which  was  so 
numerous  when  Bach  died  in  1750,  became  entirely 
extinct  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  and  it  is  also 
sad  to  know  that  many  of  them  underwent  the  sever- 
est privations  of  poverty. 


176 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Beethoven  and  Handel  were  both  unmarried,  but 
the  former  was  not  uninfluenced,  by  the  charms  of 
women.  The  beautiful  song,  “Adelaide”  was  the 
result  of  an  unrequited  attachment  on  the  part  of 
the  composer,  and  the  romance  of  the  seventh  and 
the  humor  of  the  eighth  symphony  (a  perfect  out- 
burst of  animal  spirits)  owe  their  origin  to  the  fact 
that  the  composer  was  in  love  when  he  wrote  the 
works.  With  Handel  the  case  was  different,  for,  al- 
though his  biographers  speak  of  the  fact  that  two 
different  ladies  of  quality  conceived  an  affection  for 
him,  the  case  is  by  no  means  proven,  the  fair  admir- 
ers remain  incognito,  and  the  whole  affair  may  have 
arisen  in  that  hero-worship  which  seizes  upon  so 
many  of  the  musical  biographers.  Even  if  true, 
there  is  not  a scrap  of  evidence  that  the  composer  in 
the  least  degree  returned  the  passion  he  inspired. 
In  fact,  Handel  was  at  times  as  rough  with  the  softer 
sex  as  he  was  with  men  ; his  threat  to  throw  Cuzzoni 
out  of  the  window  of  the  theatre,  where  a rehearsal 
was  in  progress,  and  where  the  caprices  of  the  prima 
donna  promised  to  interrupt  matters,  shows  that  he 
was  not  always  chivalric  in  his  treatment  of  the  sex. 
It  is  impossible  to  trace  any  of  his  compositions  to 
female  influence. 

Spohr  married  a celebrated  harpist — Dorette  Scheid- 
ler  — hence  some  of  his  works  are  for  that  instru- 


THE  WIVES  OF  THE  GEE  AT  COMPOSERS.  177 


nient,  which  really  became  important  only  after 
Erard’s  improvements  in  1810.  He  also  composed 
works  for  violin  and  harp,  in  which  he  and  his  wife 
appeared  in  concert ; thus  some  of  his  compositions 
came  about  directly  owing  to  his  wife.  She  certainly 
deserved  the  compliment  at  his  hands,  for  when,  upon 
his  deathbed,  he  spoke  of  the  possibility  of  the 
music  of  heaven  being  different  from  that  of  earth, 
his  spouse  showed  how  she  valued  his  works  by  re- 
plying, “ It  may  be  different,  but  it  cannot  be  better 
than  yours  !” 

Weber  also  married  a musician  — Caroline  Brandt 
— a soubrette  of  the  German  stage.  The  lady,  while 
not  very  keenly  alive  to  the  loftiness  of  the  art,  be- 
came after  marriage,  a good  wife.  Among  all  these 
citations  of  conjugal  bliss,  at  least  one  specimen  of 
the  reverse  may  be  noted ; Haydn  had  a thorough 
experience  of  domestic  infelicity.  He  married  the 
elder  daughter  of  a wigmaker,  having  fallen  in  love 
with  the  younger,  but  she  declining  to  marry,  he 
obliged  the  father,  after  earnest  solicitations,  by 
transferring  his  affections,  yet  keeping  them  in  the 
family.  The  result  was  disastrous,  for  the  woman 
proved  to  be  utterly  unfitted  for  the  composer,  and 
their  married  life  seems  to  have  been  especially  tem- 
pestuous. Haydn  on  his  part,  however,  was  not  al- 
together an  immaculate  angel,  and  gave  cause  for 
many  a well-founded  jealousy. 


178 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


With  one  more  allusion  to  a composer’s  wife,  we 
close  this  feminine  subject ; the  wife  of  Mozart  was  to 
him  a pleasant  companion,  a congenial  nature.  Poor 
lady  ! she  had  but  little  to  share  with  him  but  pov- 
erty, but  they  bore  it  brayely  together  and  Mozart’s 
sunny  nature  was  sufficient  to  gild  it.  Yet  it  might 
have  been  better  if  Mozart,  like  Schubert,  had  yielded 
to  the  decree  of  an  empty  purse,  and  never  married. 


COMPOSERS  AT  PLAY. 


If  one  examines  the  characters  of  any  of  the  great 
composers,  it  will  be  found  that  each  of  them  has  a 
streak  of  humor,  or  at  least  geniality,  running  through 
it ; and  that,  in  many  cases,  this  has  found  its  vent  in 
music  at  one  time  or  another.  To  picture  briefly  the 
humorous  side  of  the  music  of  some  of  the  great  com- 
posers will  be  the  aim  of  this  article.  Certainly,  in  the 
sedate  and  earnest  John  Sebastian  Bach  one  would 
scarcely  expect  to  find  a playful  mood,  and,  in  his 
severe  contrapuntal  Avorks,  it  would  seem  to  be  hope- 
less to  search  for  a humorous  side,  yet  even  he  left  be- 
hind him  some  purely  humorous  musical  works.  Two 
rather  lengthy  cantatas  — The  Peasant's  Cantata  and 
The  Coffee  Party  represent  the  comical  side  of  the 
works  of  Bach.  It  must  be  confessed,  however, 
that  the  humor  is  rather  ponderous  and  Johnsonian. 
In  the  latter,  for  example,  a father  tries  to  wean 
his  daughter  from  her  constant  attendance  at  gossip- 
ing cofiee  parties  (the  coffee  party  is,  in  Germany, 
somewhat  like  the  serving  circle,  in  America),  and 
(179) 


180 


THE  BEALM  OF  3IUSIC. 


promises  her  a husband,  if  she  succeeds  in  break- 
ing the  habit.  The  music  is  of  the  most  florid, 
contrapuntal  order,  and  is  not,  in  any  essential  re- 
spect, different  from  the  more  serious  works  of  the 
master.  Haydn  gave  vent  to  his  humorous  musical 
ideas  in  such  works  as  the  Toy  Symphony , where 
many  of  the  parts  are  rendered  by  children’s  toy 
instruments,  and  the  Surjjrise  Symphony  {mit  dem 
Paukenschlag) , where  a sudden  and  violent  drum- 
stroke  produces  a very  humorous  effect.  The  Choice 
of  a Conductor , a little  cantata  composed  for  a club, 
was  also  filled  with  playful  touches.  Mozart  often 
descended  to  purely  humorous  music,  and  dearly 
loved  to  make  a joke  in  tones.  One  of  his  greatest 
efforts  in  this  direction  is  called  the  Musical  Joke  — 
Pin  Musikalischer  Spass  — for  two  violins,  viola, 
bass,  and  two  horns.  In  this,  he  pictures  the  efforts 
of  an  ambitious  but  ignorant  leader  of  a small 
country  orchestra  in  composing  a symphonic  work 
for  his  band.  All  the  crudities  of  a half-formed  com- 
poser are  present  in  the  work.  Sudden  and  mis- 
placed cadenzas  of  the  most  florid  character  occur  in 
the  violin  part ; the  brasses  burst  in  forcibly  when- 
ever there  is  a dearth  of  ideas ; and,  finally,  in  an 
endeavor  to  end  the  work  with  a fugue,  the  poor 
composer  nearly  meets  with  total  shipwreck.  The 
exposition  of  the  fugue  is  pompously  made ; but 


COMPOSERS  AT  PLAY. 


181 


there  the  ideas  stop,  and  forte  effeets  cover  up  the 
composer’s  ignominious  retreat.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  humorous  pieces  of  instrumental  music  ever 
written,  but  of  course  can  only  be  thoroughly  appre- 
ciated by  the  educated  musician. 

Not  all  of  Mozart’s  jokes  were  so  innocent.  One 
of  his  most  skillful  works,  and,  in  fact,  one  of  the 
finest  three-voiced  canons  ever  written  — Lectu 
Mild  — is  insulferably  vulgar  and  coarse  in  its  humor. 

Beethoven  gave  no  entire  composition  in  the 
humorous  style,  if  we  expect  op.  52,  No.  1,  where 
he  writes  a thoroughly  comic  song,  with  some  four- 
teen verses  to  it,  entitled  “Urian’s  Travels  Round  the 
World”;  but,  in  his  fifth,  sixth,  and  eighth  sym- 
phonies, we  can  find  touches  of  humor,  which  find 
especial  vent  when  he  introduces  either  the  contra- 
basses or  the  bassoons.  He  greatly  enjoyed  joking 
with  the  latter  instrument.  AYhat,  for  example,  can 
be  more  ludicrous  than  the  performance  of  the  intox- 
icated bassoon  player  of  the  village  band  in  the  third 
movement  of  the  sixth  symphony,  or  what  more 
quaint  and  odd  than  the  elephantine  grace  of  the 
bassoon  passages  in  the  eighth  symphony  ? 

The  composers  of  Germany  have  always  had  one 
species  of  musical  jest  among  themselves  in  the  com- 
position of  enigma-canons,  where  one  phrase  only 
was  given,  and  the  distance  of  the  imitations,  the 


182 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


interval  of  time  before  their  entrance,  the  choice  of 
clefs,  the  style  of  the  imitating  voices  (whether  in 
augmentation,  diminution,  contrary  or  direct)  were 
left  for  the  puzzled  recipient  to  discover.  A whole 
series  of  finely  constructed  canons  for  pianoforte,  for 
four  hands,  by  Weitzmann,  were  recently  published 
in  Germany  in  this  enigmatical  manner.* 

The  intense  and  combative  AYagner  also,  at  times, 
enjoyed  joking  in  tones.  His  burlesque  work,  A 
Capitulation,  can,  however,  scarcely  produce  a laugh, 
since  there  was  so  much  bitterness  in  it  that  the  wit  was 
all  turned  to  gall.  But  in  his  Master  singers  of  Nur- 
emberg gives  many  humorous  instrumental  touches. 
The  entrance  of  the  toy-makers  to  the  disagreeable 
stopped  tones  of  the  trumpets,  the  tapping  of  Hans 
Sachs  during  Beckmesser’s  Serenade,  the  parody  of 
noble  Preislied,  with  an  atrocious  steel-harp  accom- 
paniment— all  these  are  legitimate  musical  jokes. 

In  modern  days,  few  of  the  composers  descend 
from  their  pedestal  to  enjoy  such  tricks  as  these ; 
yet,  only  recently,  a great  success  was  made  at  the 
Apollo  Concerts  in  Boston  by  a pure  bit  of  musical 
fun,  composed  by  America’s  great  composer,  John 
K.  Paine.  It  was  a fine,  musical  setting  forth  of 

* Another  often  used  musical  jest  was  the  beginning  of  a 
fugue  or  other  instrumental  piece  with  the  letters  of  some 
friend’s  name.  Thus,  there  are  works  beginning  B.  A.  C.  H. 
^German  B),  G.  A.  D.  E.,  etc. 


COMPOSEBS  AT  PLAY. 


183 


the  virtues  of  a patent  medicine.  The  certificate  of 
the  sufferer’s  release  from  rheumatism  is  given  with 
an  impressive,  mysterious  agitato.  The  price  of  the 
medicine  is  heralded  in  [)ure  contrapuntal  style,  and 
the  piccolo  figure  from  Beethoven’s  Egmont  Overture 
is  laid  under  contribution  to  swell  the  chorus  of 
praise  at  the  end.  This  is  the  only  very  recent  in- 
stance of  a great  composer  at  play ; but  we  feel 
sure  that  the  various  examples  which  Ave  have  given 
will  prove  to  our  readers  that  even  the  greatest  of 
composers  do  not  always  think  it  necessary  to  hedge 
their  music  in  with  awful  dignity,  but  believe  that 

“A  little  nonsense  now  and  then, 

Is  relished  by  the  best  of  men,” 


and  by  musicians  also. 


MUSICAL  CEITICISM:  ITS 
HISTORT  AND  SCOPE. 


( A PAPER  read  before  the  Music  Teachers’  National  Associa- 
tion in  Boston ;) 

Music  is  so  intangible  an  art,  it  deals,  in  its  best 
sense,  so  entirely  with  the  emotions,  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  find  for  it  as  fixed  a criterion  as  for  its 
sister  aids.  Poetiy  has  grammar  and  versification, 
painting  the  objects  of  nature,  sculpture  anatomy, — 
as  obvious  foundations  upon  which  canons  of  criti- 
cism may  be  built ; but  the  rules  of  musical  construc- 
tion differ  in  different  ages.  The  composer  who 
used  a dominant  seventh  before  159d  would  have  been 
criticised  as  violating  the  laws  of  musical  grammar 
while  he  who  omitted  the  dominant  seA^enth  alto- 
gether, after  the  seA^enteenth  century,  AAOuld  haA  e been 
reproached  as  puerile.  To  end  a composition  with  an 
empty  fifth,  in  the  last  two  or  three  centuries,  would 
haA’e  been  deemed  a musical  crime ; to  end  it  oth- 
erwise, at  a preATOus  time,  would  haA^e  been  held 
equally  wrong.  ConsecutiA^e  fifths , now  so  strenuously 
forbidden,  were  once  deemed  eminently  desirable. 
( isi^ 


MUSICAL  CRITICISM. 


185 


“But,”  one  may  retort,  “ these  things  are  all  of  the 
past : we  have  no  such  crudities  today.’'  Very  true  ; 
but  there  must  have  been  a transition  period,  when 
the  critics — then  also  the  teachers — said,  “This 
would-be  reformer  is  insane  : he  is  violating  fundamen- 
tal musical  laws.”  These  laws  are  violated  in  our  day 
by  two  widely  differing  types, — the  radical  music- 
thinker  and  the  ignoramus.  It  is  easy  for  the  critic 
to  discriminate  between  these,  but  more  difficult  to 
discern  where  the  advanced  composer  has  broken  a 
fetter  by  violating  an  arbitrary  law.  The  critics, 
in  such  cases,  too  often  bring  up  the  rear  of  the  pro- 
cession of  progress ; they  become  too  frequently 
merely  the  conservators  of  landmarks  that  have  been 
set  by  bolder  spirits  ; and  when  a yet  freer  genius 
arises,  who  advances  art  in  a new  or  unfamiliar 
path,  they  quote  his  predecessors  against  him,  only, 
however,  to  accept  his  views  when  they  have  borne 
the  test  of  time,  and  in  turn  to  quote  them  against 
some  newer  musical  liberator.  Thus,  Haydn  was 
quoted  against  ^lozart,  Mozart  against  Beethoven, 
and  Beethoven  is  now  being  cited  against  Wagner. 
Haydn  was,  in  his  day,  compared  to  a raving  Bedlam- 
ite of  music.  Of  Mozart,  it  was  said  (by  Ditters- 
dorf)  that  his  music  was  overloaded,  that  he  presented 
more  thoughts  than  the  hearer  could  possibly  digest. 
These  are  the  words; — “Scarcely  does  a beautiful 


18jS 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


thought  appear  over  which  one  would  think  a little, 
when  another  springs  up,  and  crowds  it  away,  so  that, 
of  the  many  beauties,  none  are  retained  by  the  mind.” 
To-day  there  might  be  criticism  of  Mozart,  but  it 
would  be  upon  the  score  of  simplicity,  not  of  com- 
plexity. 

We  pass  to  the  time  of  Beethoven.  The  Allge- 
meine  musikalisclie  Zeitung  of  March  6,  1799,  says 
of  the  eight  variations  “line  Fievre  Brulante”: 
“ Many  of  the  modulations  may  be  viewed  in  any 
and  every  way,  they  will  still  be,  and  remain,  flat ; 
and,  the  more  learned  and  pretentious  they  strive  to 
be,  the  more  flat  they  become.  There  are  too  many 
variations  published  in  these  days  without  the  com- 
posers seeking  to  know  what  real  variations  mean.” 
Another  critic  advises  Beethoven  to  study  Mozart, 
if  he  ever  hopes  to  know  what  variations  should  be. 
The  Trio,  op.  11,  called  forth  the  following  sentence  : 
^‘Mr.  von  Beethoven  could  give  us  pieces  of  great 
excellence  if  he  would  but  write  more  naturally,  and 
without  so  much  aflectation.”  The  three  sonatas. 
Op.  10,  drew  forth  renewed  advice  and  rebuke,  as 
follows  (June  5,  1799):  “They  are  loaded  with 
needless  difficulties.  After  all  the  labor  and  study 
of  playing  them,  they  contain  no  pleasure  wwth 
the  trouble.  Mr.  von  Beethoven  goes  his  own  road, 
and  a tiresome,  eccentric  path  it  is.  Learning, 


MUSICAL  ClUriCISM. 


187 


learning,  and  nothing  but  learning,  and  not  a bit  of 
nature,  not  a bit  of  melody  ; and  even  the  learning  is 
crude,  undigested  pedantry,  without  method  and  with- 
out arrangement,  a seeking  after  curious  modulations, 
a hatred  of  ordinary  progressions,  a heaping  up  of  diffi- 
culties until  all  patience  is  lost.”  The  Sonata  Pa- 
thetique  brought  with  it  the  accusation  that  the  final 
rondo  was  plagiarized. 

Was  all  this  stupidity  or  malice?  No;  a new 
school  of  music  had  arisen,  and  the  critics  were  try- 
ing to  measure  it  by  the  old  standard.  They  had  not 
the  ability  to  measure  the  innovations  by  the  only 
test  possible, — that  of  emotional  grandeur,  of  inher- 
ent power.  All  their  canons  of  art,  and  even  of 
grammar,  were  set  at  defiance.  Nothing  daunted 
the  new  inconoclast.  “/allow  them,  ”said  Beethoven, 
speaking  of  consecutive  fifths  to  Ries,  his  pupil. 
His  horn  tone  ( in  the  Eroica  Symphony  ) on  the 
tonic  against  the  strings  on  the  dominant  seventh  was 
like  a gauntlet  thrown  down  before  the  martinets  of 
musical  grammar.  Yet  mark  the  change  ! By  the 
time  the  Ninth  Symphony  was  reached,  the  critics  ac- 
cepted the  frightful  dissonance  with  which  its  finale 
begins  with  few  protests, — a dissonance  which,  rep- 
resenting the  strife  and  contentions  of  humanity, 
was  hideous  in  its  cacophony,  yet  entirely  appropri- 
ate. It  was  not  only  the  professional  critics  who  led 


188 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


these  attacks  upon  the  reformer, — composers  have  al- 
ways been  noted  for  the  zeal  with  which  they  rebuke 
those  who  differ  from  them  in  their  line  of  musical 
thought.  Haydn  “ did  not  expect  a great  deal  from 
Beethoven,  ” Weber  satirized  his  style  royally,  and 
Spohr  cordially  disliked  the  vein  of  the  bold  radical, 
and  also  disesteemed  his  opponent,  Weber.  Bee- 
thoven sneered  at  Weber  in  return,  and  said  that  he 
could  never  attain  more  than  the  art  of  pleasing. 

The  whole  subject  of  composers  as  critics  lies  open 
before  us  in  these  contentions.  Many  who  superfi- 
cially examine  the  matter  hold  that  no  man  should  as- 
pire to  take  rank  as  a critic  before  he  has  proved  his 
ability  to  create  in  the  same  field  where  he  proposes 
to  sit  as  judge.  As  a matter  of  fact,  composers  have 
often  been  the  most  illiberal  of  critics.  Accustomed 
to  work  in  one  direction  and  in  one  path  only,  they, 
more  than  others,  held  that  there  could  be  no  other 
roads  to  the  temple  of  art.  Mendelssohn,  elegant, 
melodic,  symmetrical,  would  have  been  the  weakest 
of  critics  to  judge  of  the  works  of  the  rugged,  earnest 
Schumann.  The  same  axiom  above  suggested  applies 
in  a kindred  realm,  — that  of  poetry.  Poets  often 
become  the  most  biased  critics  of  poetry ; and  a 
Swinburne  cannot  appreciate  a Tennyson,  while 
Keats  is  called  by  Byron  an  “ almanac  poet.”  To- 
day, we  have  the  spectacle  of  almost  all  the  compos- 


MUSICAL  CRITIC  ISM. 


181) 


ers  who  have  l)een  trained  in  the  conservative  school, 
— Kheinbcrger  and  licinecke,  for  example, — under- 
rating Wagner,  and  all  those  who  have  come  under 
the  inliuence  of  his  friend  and  disciple,  the  romantic 
Liszt,  overrating  him.  The  composer  is  a partisan 
of  partisans,  and  this  the  critic  may  never  be.  That 
three  composers  — Schumann,  Berlioz,  and  Hiller  — 
became  prominent  critics,  scarcely  invalidates  the 
rule.  Schumann  was  freed  from  partisanship  by  his 
noble  and  generous  nature,  Hiller  by  an  exceptional 
degree  of  general  culture,  and  Berlioz  was  pleasing 
rather  because  of  his  keen  wit  than  because  of  im- 
partial judgment.  Yet  Berlioz  has  left  us  a lesson 
which  deserves  to  be  heeded.  There  is  no  necessity 
that  even  the  most  earnest  critic  should  be  dull. 
There  is  a difference,  a marked  difference,  in  this  re- 
spect, between  different  nations.  The  English  critic, 
the  same  who  set  Mendelssohn  on  a very  high  pedes- 
tal, and  crushed  Schumann  under  it,  deems  it  a duty 
to  become  dignifiedly  dull  whenever  any  musical  topic 
is  to  be  discussed  ; but  the  German  musical  reviewers 
following  Schumann  (Hanslick,  for  example),  and 
the  French  critics  following  Berlioz  (as  Escudier), 
do  not  disdain  to  use  ridicule,  satire,  badinage,  as 
weapons.  One  would  gladly  see  these  qualities  ap- 
pear more  frequently  in  American  criticism,  for  much 
music  of  the  cheaper  class  is  as  correct  as  a Scotch 


190 


THE  REALM  OF  31USIC. 


Sabbath,  and  has  as  little  variety;  clinging  securely 
to  the  rock  of  tonic  and  dominant,  it  never  meets  dis- 
aster, as  far  as  musical  grammar  goes  ; yet  it  has 
been  one  of  the  most  pernicious  influences  in  Amer- 
ican composition.  The  thousand  and  one  pieces  mis- 
called “popular,”  and  bearing  the  titles.  Transcrip- 
tion de  Concert^  Fantasie  Brillante,  etc.  (generally 
in  very  doubtful  French),  have  impeded  the  accept- 
ance of  real  music,  composed  by  our  Paines,  Chad- 
wicks, Whitings,  and  Mac  Dowells,  because  they 
have  been  accepted  by  many,  outside  of  our  musical 
centres,  as  real  concert  music.  To  criticize  earnestly 
such  rubbish  is  to  break  a butterfly  on  a wheel ; but 
ridicule  is  a shaft  against  which  they  are  defenceless, 
and  which  treats  them  in  a manner  more  akin  to  their 
intrinsic  worth.  The  American  critic  has  an  especial 
duty  in  this  field.  In  no  country  is  music  so  univers- 
ally studied  as  in  our  own  ; but  in  no  country  also 
has  there  been  so  much  of  superficiality  in  the  art, 
and  such  an  omnivorous  appetite.  The  person  who 
finds  Wagner’s  WallaUre  “ awfully  nice”  one  week, 
finds  the  latest  musical  burlesque  “perfectly  splen- 
did ” the  week  after.  The  critic  here  must  separate 
the  wheat  from  the  chaff  for  a public  which  does  not  al- 
ways take  time  to  think  for  itself.  The  musical  atmos- 
phere is  not  yet  around  us  as  it  is  about  the  dwellers 
in  old^r  countries  ; the  standard  is  yet  very  fluctuat- 


MUSICAL  CRITICISM. 


191 


ing,  and  it  is  our  duty  to  fix  it,  and  to  set  it  where  the 
numerous  pseudo-professors  shall  not  lower  it.  This 
is  an  easy  task  where  honesty  and  even  moderate 
ability  are  combined,  but  behind  it  lies  the  higher 
task  of  seeking  for  the  greater  geniuses  who  shall 
arise  under  the  new  condition  of  things.  Will  our 
critics  apply  the  old-fashioned  yard-stick  of  technical- 
ity when  a composer  shall  arise  who  shall  be  sut  gen- 
eris? Will  they,  as  many  European  reviewers  do, 
judge  of  the  form  rather  than  of  the  contents  of  the 
works  of  such  a comi)oser  ? 

The  error  which  too  many  of  our  critics  fall  into 
is  that  they  regard  criticism  as  synonymous  with 
fault-finding,  and  if  they  can  find  nothing  to  blame 
in  a work  they  say  very  little  about  it.  Many  a 
reputation  as  a great  critic  has  been  won  in  precisely 
this  way.  Turgueiiief,  in  one  of  his  short  sketches, 
gives  an  admirable  account  of  a fool  who  wanted  to 
be  considered  a wise  man,  and  wholly  succeeded  in 
his  scheme,  simply  by  finding  fault  with  everything 
that  other  people  admired ; and  these  other  people, 
ashamed  to  be  discovered  ignorant,  at  once  changed 
their  opinions,  and  found  fault  too,  but  voted  the 
fool  a very  keen  observer  and  well  informed  gentle- 
man. There  are  such  fools  somewhat  nearer  than 
Kussia,  and  an  adverse  criticism  is  always  more 
piquant  than  a favorable  one  ; nevertheless,  the  critic 


192 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


must  endeavor  to  devote  some  of  his  time  to  the  dis- 
covery of  beauties  which  are  too  subtle  to  be  appre- 
ciated by  the  public.  Of  course,  the  critic’s  mission 
is  ever  two-fold,  first,  to  lead  on  the  public,  second, 
to  guide  the  artist  or  the  composer,  and  point  out 
modes  of  betterment  which  may  occur  to  an  outsider 
much  more  readily  than  to  the  composer  or  artist 
himself.  The  first  is  by  far  the  more  agreeable  task, 
for  it  is  an  abstract  one.  Even  if  he  should  abuse 
the  public  and  charge  it  with  ignorance  and  lack  of 
taste,  each  reader  takes  the  charges  complacently, 
and  acknowledges  that  they  exactly  fit  — his  neigh- 
bor. With  the  guidance  of  the  composer  or  artist, 
the  duty  is  less  pleasant.  The  musician  does  not  be- 
lieve that  you  desire  to  help  him,  and  imagines  that 
you  could  not  if  you  tried.  “What  have  you  got 
against  me  ? ” is  the  reproachful  question  which  im- 
mediately follows  such  a review.  He  cannot  imagine 
that  criticism  can  exist  apart  from  personality  ; and, 
in  fact,  the  personal  plane  upon  which  many  criti- 
cisms are  built  gives  some  color  to  his  supposition. 
Nevertheless  there  is  a reverse  side  to  the  picture ; 
and  the  proudest  trophies  of  the  critic  are  often,  not 
the  compliments  of  the  laity,  but  the  letters  from 
artists  acknowledging  the  truth  of  this  or  that  com- 
ment, and  promising  to  profit  by  it. 

I have  spoken  of  the  critic  who  judges  by  techni- 


3IUSICAL  CBITICISM. 


198 


calties  only  ; naturally,  such  a critic  must  be,  to  some 
extent,  a musician.  In  contrast  to  such  a one  is  the 
critic  who  is  not  a musician  at  all.  He  is  not  always 
without  an  influence  in  musical  matters,  as  our  art 
stands  today,  provided  he  be  a man  of  refined  taste 
and  general  culture  ; for  then  he  represents  the  thought 
of  the  best  portion  of  the  public,  and  to  know 
this  is  of  some  value  to  the  artist.  Naturally,  his 
work  is  one-sided  at  the  best,  and  he  becomes  simply 
a convenient  medium  of  communication  between  the 
audience  and  the  artist. 

The  public  can,  to  be  sure,  express  its  approba- 
tion spontaneously  and  on  the  spot,  without  the 
intervention  of  the  non-musical  critic  ; but  its  disap- 
probation is  not  so  easily  understood,  since 'the  ‘ ‘ hiss  ” 
is  not  acclimated  in  this  country.  But  the  day  even 
of  the  cultured  amateur  as  a writer  is  passing  away. 
I need  not  spend  time  in  more  than  mentioning  the 
critic  who  merely  makes  up  his  notices  (I  cannot  call 
them  criticisms)  from  terms  taken  from  the  musical 
dictionaries , who  says  that  ‘ ‘ the  staccati  and  pizzi- 
cati  were  well  played  by  the  strings,  but  the  wood- 
wind gave  the  sforzando  effects  confuoco.'' 

Many  are  the  satires  that  have  been  pointed  at  the 
clairvoyant  critic, — the  one  who  reviews  a concert 
without  the  slight  formality  of  going  to  hear  it. 
Naturally,  such  an  imposture  has  no  place  in  our  con- 


194 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


side  ration  of  the  serious  topic ; but  the  existence  of 
such  an  evil  leads  me  to  speak  of  one  of  the  causes 
which  have  produced  it.  In  European  journals,  the 
counting-house  does  not  rule  the  critic  so  much  as  it 
does  in  America.  I do  not  mean  to  say  that  the 
opinion  of  any  large  newspaper,  in  musical  matters, 
can  be  bought  or  sold ; but  the  artist  who  inserts  an 
advertisement  in  any  journal  here  tacitly  demands  as 
part  of  the  contract  that  some  criticism  shall  appear 
in  its  columns.  When  concerts  occur  at  the  rate  of 
two  or  three  in  an  evening,  and  the  critic  finds  no 
available  substitute , he  is  forced  to  wander  from  con- 
cert to  concert,  hearing  a couple  of  numbers  at  each, 
and  taking  these  specimen  bricks  as  representative 
of  the  entire  edifice.  It  would,  in  my  opinion,  be 
much  better  to  allow  a concert  to  go  entirely  “ un- 
honored and  unsung  ” than  to  base  criticism  on  such 
imperfect  and  partial  hearing.  Yet  every  critic  will 
tell  you  of  occasions  where  he  is  forced  to  yield  thus 
to  the  pressure  of  circumstances.  Mistakes  must 
often  occur  in  such  reviews,  and  each  mistake  brings 
criticism  into  disrepute.  I shall  certainly  not  add  to 
this  by  giving  a list  of  such  errors,  yet  we  all  know 
that  they  have  occurred ; and  even  from  Edward 
Hanslick,  who  may,  I think,  be  regarded  as  the 
greatest  living  critic,  down  to  the  fiippant  and  care- 
less criticaster,  the  army  of  musical  reviewers  is  con- 


MUSICAL  CRITICIS3I. 


195 


tinually  adding  to  the  catalogue.  It  would  be  well 
if  the  critics  had  more  liberty  of  choice  as  to  what 
concerts  were  worthy  of  review,  and  Avere  permitted 
to  drop  many  of  the  lesser  ones  from  the  list  (when 
overcrowded),  and  concentrate  their  acumen  upon 
representative  performances . 

Between  the  composer  and  critic  there  is  often  a 
deeper  feud  than  between  the  artist  and  the  unfortu- 
nate re\dewer  who  has  l^elittled  him.  The  composer 
fails  to  see  that  sometimes  the  critic  may  be  right  in 
condemning  his  audacious  modulations  or  his  devia- 
tions from  established  form.  Merely  to  break  estab- 
lished usage  is  not  sufficient  to  prove  genius. 

“ Quod  licet  Jovis,  non  licet  Bovis.” 

Only  those  who  have  given  proof  that  they  have 
mastered  the  rules  of  music  have  a right  to  break 
them. 

The  mere  possession  of  the  faults  of  the  great  com- 
posers is  sometimes  held  to  be  a proof  of  genius. 
Per  contra,  the  critic  who  is  a fault-finder  by  dispo- 
sition, the  constitutional  “consecutive  fifth-hunter,” 
falls  into  a - strain  oftentimes,  which  cannot  be  too 
scornfully  rebuked.  “Music  is  decaying,”  he  whines, 
“the  good  old  classical  times  have  gone  by.”  Non- 
sense ! The  generations  after  us  Avill  speak  of  the 
good  old  times  at  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century, 


196 


THE  BEALM  OF  31USIG. 


and  will  bewail  the  fact  that  they  have  no  Brahms, 
no  Wagner,  while  perhaps  equally  great  composers 
are  living  under  their  very  noses.  In  music,  unfor- 
tunately, no  man  becomes  absolutely  great  until  he 
has  a granite  shaft  placed  over  him  to  hold  him 
securely  under,  and  prevent  him  from  coming  back 
to  hear  his  praises  chanted.  We  cannot  judge  of  a 
great  edifice  while  standing  under  its  eaves  ; it  seems 
that  we  cannot  do  justice  to  a great  composer  until 
time  has  removed  him  a little  way  off*  from  us.  The 
tune  of  the  decadence  of  music  has  been  sung  by 
critics  and  composers  in  all  ages  and  climes.  Henry 
of  Yeldig,  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  remote 
epoch  of  the  Minnesingers,  wails  out  that  the  art  of 
Minnesong  is  past.  Father  Marcello,  in  1704,  says, 
“Music  is  gradually  deteriorating.”  Rameau,  in 
1760,  laments,  “ Music  is  lost ; ” and  yet  some  very 
respectable  composers,  named  Beethoven,  Mozart, 
Weber,  and  4Yagner,  came  later. 

We  have  no  Beethovens  today,”  reiterates  the 
critic,  and  this  time  he  is  right.  All  our  conserva- 
tories, all  our  increased  facilities  of  study,  all  the 
great  increase  in  the  ranks  of  earnest  students,  can- 
not give  us  a Beethoven.  A genius  comes  in  re- 
sponse to  no  mortal  call,  and  w^e  have  no  Prometheus 
to  steal  for  us  the  sacred  fire  from  heaven.  Homer 
lived  among  savages  who  could  not  understand  him. 


MUSICAL  CBITICISM. 


197 


Shakespeare  was  a nineteenth  century  man  Ijorn  in 
the  sixteenth.  A golden  period  of  art-study  may 
exist,  and  only  produce  numerous  talents.  But  let 
not  our  critics  forget  that  this  is  the  golden  epoch  of 
execution,  that  never  in  the  history  of  the  world  has 
there  been  such  care  expended  upon  the  performance 
of  master-works  ; and,  if  they  are  to  faithfully  repre- 
sent the  epoch,  their  own  care  must  be  as  faithful  in 
the  chronicling  and  in  the  analysis.  We  may  not 
demand  a Schumann.  “In  the  ocean  of  musical  crit- 
icism ” (to  paraphrase  the  remark  of  a great  musician) 
“there  are  two  kinds  of  beings, — those  who  are 
fishes,  and  those  who  have  learned  to  swim,”  Schu- 
mann Avas  a fish,  we  have  l)ut  learned  to  swim.  But 
you  composers  and  artists  who  deem  that  each  mis- 
take proves  ignorance,  dishonesty,  or  malice  in  crit- 
icism, let  me  sum  up  but  a few  of  the  errors  of  great 
critics,  and  judge  if  infallibility  is  to  be  expected  of 
the  lesser  lights. 

Mattheson  l)elittled  Handel. 

Handel  despised  Gluck,  and  did  not  like  Bach. 

Haydn,  Spohr,  and  Weber  looked  down  on  Bee- 
thoven . 

Beethoven,  Spohr,  and  Spontini  laughed  at  Weber. 

Cherubini  satirized  Berlioz. 

Mendelssohn  sneered  at  Schumann. 

Hanslick  has  virulently  attacked  Robert  Franz  and 
Richard  AYagner. 


198 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Wagner  has  attacked  almost  everybody. 

With  such  a record  before  us,  let  us  not  be  alto- 
gether disappointed  if  the  American  critics  do  not 
recognize  the  first  genius  that  comes  along.  Let  us 
be  satisfied  if  they  are  musicians,  sufficient  at  least  to 
analyze  a new  work  intelligently,  honest  in  their  in- 
tentions, and  striving  to  elevate  native  art  while  ap- 
preciating the  advantages  of  following  in  foreign  foot- 
steps. Mendelssohn’s  sneer  at  critics  may  be  thus 
freely  translated  : — 


“ If  composers  earnest  are, 

Then  we  go  to  sleep ; 

If  they  take  a lively  style, 

Then  we  vote  them  ‘ cheap.’ 

“ If  the  composition’s  long. 

Then  its  length  we’re  fearing; 
If  the  writer  makes  it  short, 
’Tisn’t  worth  the  hearing. 

“ If  the  work  is  plain  and  clear, 

‘ Play  it  to  some  child ;’ 

If  its  style  should  deeper  be, 

‘Ah,  the  fellow’s  wild’ ! 

“ Let  a man  write  as  he  will. 

Still  the  critics  tight ; 
Therefore,  let  him  please  himself. 
If  he  would  do  right.” 


MUSICAL  CBITICISM. 


199 


We  may  hope  that  the  day  for  such  sneers  is  pass- 
ing away ; that,  even  if  the  lion  and  the  lamb  shall 
not  lie  down  together,  at  least  the  composers  and 
artists  may  come  to  look  upon  the  critic  not  as  a nat- 
ural enemy,  nor  even  as  a necessary  evil,  but  as  a 
friend  who,  while  respecting  the  man.  can  say  stur- 
dily, with  Brutus,  “I  do  not  like  your  faults.” 


MUSICAL  HUMBUG-S. 


The  study  of  music  has  become  so  universal  in  the 
United  States  that  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  new 
field  has  brought  forth  a great  deal  of  chaff,  together 
with  its  wheat.  We  are  not  of  those  who  imagine 
that  the  American  people  are  essentially  unmusical, 
because  they  tolerate  and  even  demand  a certain 
amount  of  humbug  in  their  favorite  art.  Any  one 
studying  the  history  of  the  rise  of  music  in  America 
will  be  forced,  in  viewing  the  progress  of  forty  years, 
to  acknowledge  that  no  nation  has  made  such  rapid 
strides  and  such  healthy  advancement  in  art  in  so 
short  a time.  Forty  years  ago,  the  singing-school, 
held  all  the  musical  culture  (outside  of  a very  few 
choral  societies)  which  the  country  could  boast  of. 
A few  almost  self-taught  musicians  wrote  strangely 
ambitious  music  for  the  uncouth  performers.  The 
Battle  of  Prague  and  Bonaj)arte  C^'ossing  the  Bliine 
were  high-grade  selections  of  the  drawing-room  re- 
pertoire. And  when  0/g  Carrij  Me  Back,  or  Camp- 
town  Paces  were  rejected  by  the  singing-school 
(200) 


V 


MUSICAL  HUMBUGS. 


201 


teacher,  it  was  in  favor  of  iiiissliapeii  fugue  tunes  and 
wild  attempts  at  classical  ( ?)  luirinonics. 

A music-printer  of  that  epoch  has  given  us  statis- 
tics which  conclusively  prove  that  our  picture  is  not 
overdrawn.  The  sales  of  some  very  successful  i)icces 
did  not  exceed  a thousand  eoi)ies  a year.  Today, 
the  position  of  atfairs  is  totally  changed.  The  sales 
of  Beethoven’s  works  alone  number  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  copies  annually  ; and  the  programmes  of 
our  choral  and  orchestral  societies  have  been  held  up 
for  emulation  abroad  by  some  of  the  best  European 
journals.  But  out  of  the  ignorance  of  the  past  have 
sprouted  the  weeds  of  the  present.  National  thor- 
oughness is  not  a plant  of  such  rapid  growth,  and, 
as  a consequence,  much  superhciality  is  cloaked  under 
the  universal  “love  of  music.” 

The  humbugs  that  have  sprung  up  to  pander  to 
this  failing  are  easily  recognizable,  but  deserve  point- 
ing out  to  those  who  are  young  in  study,  and  can- 
not yet  distinguish  the  false  from  the  true. 

We  need  scarcely  allude  to  the  “patent”  method  of 
teaching  music  by  charts i cards,  or  other  devices. 
These  do  not  teach  iJiusic , jhnt  do  teach  a mechanical 
execution  ot  tonic,  dominant,  and  sub-dominant 
chords  in  various  keys,— f a knowledge  which  the  in- 
telliijent  scholar  attains  without  any  trouble  as  he 
studies  the  scales,  ])roviding  he  has  a careful  teacher. 


202 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUEIC. 


But  these  three  highly  respectable  and  eminently  use- 
ful chords  are  underneath  three-fourths  of  all  the 
humbug  of  music-teaching  and  playing  in  America. 
If  a man  were  to  give  tuition  in  simple  addition , sub- 
traction, multiplication,  and  division,  and,  after  the 
course,  tell  his  pupil  that  he  had  taught  him  math- 
ematics, the  deceit  would  be  apparent.  Yet  that  is 
the  method  employed  by  the  musical  tricksters.  They 
teach  the  elements,  and  affirm  that  these  are  the  Ul- 
tima Thule. 

The  greater  part  of  the  “ popular”  piano  pieces  of 
America  come  under  the  class  of  humbugs,  for  they 
are  written  to  foster  the  deceit.  Take  up  any  of  the 
Silver  Sprays,  Golden  Waves,  and  other  metallic 
wares  (really  “ brass  ”)  of  the  “favorite”  composers, 
and  you  will  find  them  ticketed  Fantasie  de  Convert, 
Transcription  Bidllante  or  with  other  pompous  de- 
scriptions. Open  them,  and  (if  you  are  not  practi- 
cally musical)  you  will  see  an  array  of  small  arpeg- 
gio notes  that  impress  you  with  a sense  of  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  work.  Listen  to  them,  and  you  hear 
brilliant  scramblings  into  the  upper  register  of  the 
piano,  and  are  ready  to  acknowledge  virtuosity,  at 
least,  when  you  suddenly  observe  that  these  scram- 
blings are  utterly  devoid  of  meaning,  and  have  a sus- 
picious sameness.  Then  you  have  solved  the  riddle. 
The  piece  is  a “musical  humbug,”  and  has  endeavored 


MUSICAL  HUMBUGS. 


203 


to  dress  up  the  elementary  chords  in  tinsel  splendor, 
to  im[)Ose  them  on  you  as  true  gold.  Its  wild 
rushes  and  cross-hand  movements  are  not  so  useful 
nor  so  difficult  as  the  arpeggio  exercises  of  the  modest 
scholar  of  an  honest  teacher  (who  will  not  arrive  at 
Fantasies  de  Concert  for  some  years  yet.)  The 
whole  farrago  can  be  memorized  in  ten  minutes. 
We  have  dwelt  at  some  length  on  this  branch  of 
humbug,  for  almost  all  of  the  systems  and  methods 
used  by  “professors”  who  accept  ridiculously  small 
sums  for  teaching  music  in  an  incredibly  short 
space  of  time  consist  simply  in  making  a parade  of 
this  ABC  lesson  in  harmony. 

Harmony  itself  seems  to  be  a very  fatiguing  study 
to  the  superficial  pupil,  who  is  yet  beyond  being  mis- 
led by  the  clumsy  deception  above  mentioned ; and 
it  is  to  this  higher  grade  of  incapables  that  the  in- 
ventor of  new  systems  of  harmony  addresses  himself. 
In  addition  to  teaching  the  elements,  a few  chords  and 
modulations,  his  views  upon  “progressions,”  are,  to 
say  the  least,  progressive.  He  cites  a few  examples 
of  the  misdeeds  of  the  Wagnerian  school,  and  then 
tells  his  pupil,  who  has  studied  perhaps  a week, 
“Go,  and  do  likewise.” 

In  other  words,  his  patent  time-saving  system  of 
teaching  harmony  consists  in  saying:  “Write  your 
progressions  as  you  please.  There  will  always  be 


204 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC 


similar  instances  in  the  works  of  Wagner,  Brahms, 
or  even  Schumann  and  Beethoven.  Twenty  dollars, 
please.”  Another  class  of  humbug,  and  a very  num- 
erous one,  is  the  too-learned  vocal  professor.  He 
seldom  teaches  singing,  but  advertises  as  a “voice- 
builder,”  “teacher  of  vocal  technique,”  “founder  of 
the  respiratory  organs,”  or  something  of  that  terrify- 
ing sort.  He  does  not  sing  to  any  appreciable  ex- 
tent, but  he  has  memorized  the  eutire  nomenclature 
of  “ the  little  muscles  with  the  long  names,”  and 
frightens  his  pupils  with  “thyrohyoid  ligaments,” 
“lateral  crico-aretynoid  muscles,”  “glosso-pharyn- 
geal  nerves,”  etc ; and  his  room  contains  a sanguin- 
ary assortment  of  throat  models,  in  various  stages  of 
dissection.  We  do  not  mean  that  singing  should 
deny  itself  the  advantages  of  scientific  research,  but 
we  aflSrm  that  many  of  these  pompous  teachers  only 
use  their  slight  physiological  studies  to  befog  and 
humbug  their  pupils.  Porpora,  who  certainly  was  a 
good  vocal  teacher,  was  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
anatomy  of  the  throat. 

Another  numerous  class  of  innocent  “humbugs” 
are  the  young  misses,  who,  while  taking  lessons  on 
the  one  hand,  give  lessons  to  very  young  scholars  on 
the  other.  They  generally  do  this  without  consult- 
ing their  teacher,  and  of  course  without  his  sanction. 

This  pernicious  practice  of  taking  second-hand 


MUSICAL  HUMBUGS. 


205 


music  lessons  is  bred  of  the  laughable  idea,  firmly 
rooted  in  the  uncultured  mind,  that  “anybody”  will 
do  to  teach  a beginner.  As  if  “anybody”  might  do 
to  plan  a house,  while  the  bricks  must  be  laid  by  an 
artist,  or  “anybody”  might  be  employed  to  cut  a 
coat,  but  the  later  work  must  be  confided  to  the 
best  workmen  ! 

But  there  is  scarcely  need  to  define  further.  The 
humbugs  above  sketched  are  the  leading  types.  It  is 
safest  to  distrust  the  distinguished  professor  who  has 
discovered  means  of  shortening  the  road  to  either 
piano-playing,  singing  or  harmony,  or  who  teaches  at 
a price  who  suggests  that  his  own  tuition  must  have 
been  very  cheap  indeed  to  allow  him  to  do  so. 
Twenty,  even  ten  years  hence,  the  rapidly  growing 
intelligence  of  American  music  lovers  will  have  made 
such  an  article  asThis  needless ; and  then  we  shall  be 
able  to  smile  at,  as  we  now  earnestly  protest  against, 
“musical  humbugs.” 


DEIFICATION  OF  COMPOS- 
ERS. 


In  one  of  his  wonderfully  bright  “Breakfast  Table” 
books,  Dr.  Holmes  speaks  of  the  necessity  of  view- 
ing Scriptural  events  and  phrases  through  contempo- 
raneous spectacles,  and  occasionally  putting  aside  the 
mist  which  time  has  hung  about  them,  that  they  may 
become  more  lifelike,  and  be  denuded  of  undue 
indistinctness.  It  has  often  seemed  to  us  that  a 
nearer  approach  to  the  great  composers,  where  hero- 
worship  has  been  pushed  even  to  mild  deification, 
might  in  one  sense  be  a desirable  thing,  although  the 
gilding  of  the  demi-gods  might  sufier  thereby.  The 
anecdotes  which  have  been  hung  on  this,  that,  or  the 
other  musician,  have  changed  them  from  lifelike  fio:- 
ures  into  unnatural  statues. 

That  the  earliest  of  our  composers  were  thus 
treated  is  pardonable,  for  they  belonged  to  the 
Church,  and  exercised  their  talents  exclusively  for 
the  Church.  Their  lives  were  sober  and  righteous, 
and  in  pursuing  music  they  rarely  forgot  to  seek  a 
( 206  ) 


DEIFICATION  OF  COMPOSEBS. 


207 


pure  harmony  within,  as  well.  In  strong  contrast 
to  these  were  the  secular  musicians,  who  were,  by 
law,  classified  as  “vagabonds,”  and  did  their  best  to 
deserve  the  name. 

Careless  and  merry  wanderers,  they  led  a roving 
gypsy  life,  and  did  not  care  deeply  that  they  were 
social  Pariahs ; but  from  this  cause  suffered  the 
greater  composers  of  the  last  century.  From  this 
cause,  they  could  not  have  been  the  statuesque  na- 
tures which  many  biographers  claim  them  to  have 
been. 

In  Haydn’s  life  we  see  all  the  outcome  of  a con- 
tumely which  was  the  musician’s  lot  in  the  last  cen- 
tury : it  made  him  a lackey  to  the  great,  a ruler  to 
the  humble.  In  his  childhood,  manhood,  and  age, 
if  one  disassociates  the  man  from  the  musician,  one 
constantly  finds  traits  which  are  not  out  of  keeping 
with  John  Thomas,  the  typical  fiunkey  of  Punch. 
Ell  passant,  it  may  be  said  that  the  full,  unbiased 
life  of  Haydn  has  yet  to  be  written. 

Handel,  in  spite  of  the  powerful  nature  which  car- 
ried him  through  opposition  and  apathy  to  a trium- 
phant success,  was  known  in  his  time  as  the  “Ger- 
man Hog.”  His  furious  temper  and  enormous  ap- 
petite were  the  spots  on  an  otherwise  great  charac- 
ter. The  frivolity  and  thoughtlessness  of  Mozart, 
the  many  weaknesses  of  Schubert  (which  made  him 


208 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


poor  and  kept  him  so) , have  been  carefully  glossed 
over  by  many  of  their  biographers.  The  weaknesses 
and  failings  of  Wagner  have  yet  to  find  their  place 
in  his  history.  It  is  time  that  this  deification  should 
cease  : we  do  not  wish, to  specially  attack  the  com- 
posers of  the  world,  but  we  protest  against  the 
efforts  of  biographers  to  invariably  unite  goodness  of 
music  with  goodness  of  character.  It  may  be  caused 
by  the  ancient  law  of  caste,  which  made  them  “ vag- 
abonds, singers,  and  jongleurs  ” of  the  Middle  Ages  ; 
it  may  be  caused  by  the  unnecessary  onesidedness  of 
the  musical  education ; but  the  fact  remains  that 
these  demigods,  when  scrutinized,  turn  out  to  be 
very  ordinary  clay. 

One  name  however,  can  survive  the  scrutiny  of 
the  honest  biographer.  Great  as  musician  and  great 
as  man,  Bach  can  stand  unabashed  in  “the  fierce  light 
that  beats  about  a throne.”  This  exception  Only 
proves  the  rule,  however,  and  should  rebuke  the  un- 
founded belief  that  the  work  and  the  maker  are  one. 

The  ideal  composer,  as  the  ideal  painter,  poet, 
and  statesman,  should  be  pure  and  noble  in  private 
life  as  in  his  public  work ; but  let  us  not  deceive  our- 
selves into  believing  that  this  high  plane  is  already 
reached. 


THE  CASTE  OF  THE  MUSI- 
CIAN. 


In  Europe  in  the  last  century  the  musician  was 
held  to  be  only  a superior  order  of  servant.  He 
was  happy  if  he  could  secure  the  patronage  of  some 
rich  nobleman,  and  this  accomplished,  was  content  to 
be  addressed  as  “Er,”  the  contemptuous  third  per- 
son of  the  Germans,  or  to  perform  even  menial  ser- 
vices, when  required.  This  is  startingly  shown  by 
advertisements  of  about  a hundred  }^ears  ago,  where- 
in we  find  calls  for  footmen  who  w^ere  able,  on  oc- 
casion, to  sing  in  concerted  music,  and  valets  who 
could,  when  required,  sustain  second  violin  or  viola 
in  a string  quartet.  All  this  false  position  came 
from  the  fact  that  concerts  had  not  become  frequent 
at  that  time,  and  the  musician  could  not  draw^  his 
sustenance  directly  from  public  favor.  England  was 
someAvhat  better  off  in  this  matter  than  continental 
Europe,  for  concerts  for  the  public  had  their  be- 
ginning there  and  were  always  looked  upon  with  fa- 
They  began  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II  and 
(209) 


vor. 


210 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


came  about  because  of  the  introduction  of  the  new 
drink  named  “Coffee”  into  London.  When  the 
first  coffee-houses  were  established  they  became  a 
sort  of  exchange  where  the  first  business  men, 
and  men  of  leisure  also,  met,  and  the  proprietors 
soon  tried  to  enhance  their  drawing  powers  by  giv- 
ing free  music  to  their  guests,  and  as  this  proved 
vastly  successful,  they  soon  found  it  advantageous 
to  add  better  artists  to  their  musical  attractions  and 
to  charge  a small  entrance  fee  while  the  music  was 
going  on.  These  were  the  earliest  regular  public 
concerts.  In  continental  Europe  nothing  of  this 
kind  was  attempted,  and  the  musician  often  found 
himself  the  slave  of  some  petty  aristrocrat  who 
cared  little  for  music  and  less  for  its  representatives. 
The  result  was  baneful  in  the  extreme.  Haydn  was 
treated  entirely  as  a menial  by  the  Esterhazys  until 
after  he  had  won  popular  success  in  London.  In 
early  life  he  was  Porpora’s  bootblack,  and  it  was 
only  when  he  was  world-famous  that  he  was  able  to 
break  the  fetters  of  an  iron  caste.  With  Mozart  the 
case  was  far  worse ; in  the  first  place  he  had  a far 
more  sensitive  and  less  servile  nature  than  Haydn, 
and  secondly,  his  master,  the  Archbishop  of  Salz- 
burg, was  a much  greater  “cad”  than  prince  Ester- 
hazy.  On  one  occasion  when  Mozart  ventured  to  de- 
mand a slightly  better  position  he  was  kicked  out  of 


THE  CASTE  OF  THE  MUSICIAN. 


211 


the  room  forcibly.  Schubert,  when  teaching  at  the 
castle  of  the  Esterhazy’s,  was  content  to  associate 
with  the  servants  on  a footing  of  equality.  It  is 
only  in  this  century  that  the  status  of  the  musician 
has  been  socially  improved  to  its  proper  level.  Nor 
was  it  Beethoven  who  wrought  the  change.  He,  to  be 
sure,  roundly  abused  his  princely  patrons  even  while 
receiving  their  favors,  and  shocked  the  courtier  and 
poet  Goethe  by  pushing  in  his  shirtsleeves  through  a 
gathering  of  noblemen  whom  he  met  during  one  of 
his  rambles  ; but  this  was  a kind  of  bearishness  that 
pleased  them  even  because  of  its  odd  flavor,  and  they 
looked  upon  Beethoven  as  a strange  and  uncouth  an- 
imal to  be  borne  with  because  of  his  oddity. 

It  was  Liszt,  however,  who  first  thoroughly  voiced 
the  standing  of  a true  musician,  and  in  a manner 
worthy  of  a gentleman,  too.  When,  on  his  return 
from  one  of  his  concert  tours,  he  met  the  Princess 
Metternich  in  a salon  crowded  with  nobility,  and  was 
asked  by  her  whether  he  had  done  a good  business, 
he  replied,  severely,  “ I make  music,  madam,  not 
business  ! ” And  in  that  remark  the  dignity  of  the 
position  of  the  musical  artist  was  first  announced  to 
the  fashionable  world. 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF 
VERDI. 


Or  all  the  great  composers  of  the  present,  Verdi, 
as  a whole,  has  been  most  independent  of  Wagner. 
He  avoids  the  leit-motif  as  if  it  were  poison,  and  even 
in  orchestration  seeks  out  independent  paths.  Yet 
even  the  most  Teutonic  critic  will  acknowledge  that 
Verdi  has  progressed,  and  in  an  extraordinary  de-i 
gree,  since  he  brought  forth  his  first  operas  a half  cen- 
tury ago.  In  1839  he  brought  “Oberto  di  San  Boni- 
facio” before  the  Milanese  public,  and  won  immedi- 
ate recognition.  He  was  then  twenty-six  years  of 
age,  for  Verdi  was  born  in  the  same  year  in  which 
Wagner  saw  the  light — 1813.  It  is  said  that  Verdi 
is  at  present  engaged  in  writing  a comic  opera  on 
the  subject  of  the  Shakesperian  work,  “The  Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor,”  and  many  newspapers  have  char- 
acterized this  as  a new  departure.  It  is  not  so  new 
as  these  commentators  think,  for,  in  1840,  the  com- 
poser wrote  “Un  Giorno  di  Begno,”  a comic  opera. 
It  must  bring  back  strange  recollections  to  the  com- 
(212) 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  VEIWL 


213 


poser  to  work  again  at  the  lighter  school,  for  when 
he  was  composing  this  early  comic  opera,  by  a grim 
irony  of  fate,  the  darkest  misfortunes  came  upon 
him,  and  within  a few  months  his  entire  family,  con- 
sisting of  his  wife  and  two  children,  died.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  state  that  the  opera  was  a flat 
failure,  the  chief  one  of  all  Verdi’s  career.  The 
first  very  great  success  (speaking  from  the  popular 
point  of  view,  for  to  the  earnest  musician,  all  of 
these  early  operas  were  failures)  was  “ Nabucco,” 
which  in  1842  was  produced  at  La  Scala  in  Milan. 
He  afterwards  married  the  prima  donna  who  cre- 
ated the  part  of  the  heroine  of  this  opera.  At  one 
time  a fortuitous  circumstance  brought  Verdi  into 
the  cauldron  of  political  events.  Northern  Italy  at 
this  era  belonged  to  Austria,  and  any  shouting  for 
Liberty  or  for  Victor  Emanuel  was  punished  as  trea- 
son. At  this  juncture  it  was  discovered  that  the  let- 
ters of  the  composer’s  name  formed  the  initials  of  the 
following  sentence,  “Victor  Emanuel  Ee  D’ltalia,” 
(Victor  Emanuel,  king  of  Italy)  and  in  a very  few 
days  all  the  revolutionists  were  screaming  their  throats 
out  with  “Viva  Verdi.”  The  police  did  not  at  once 
discover  the  cause  of  this  wild  enthusiasm  for  a 
young  composer,  but  it  served  as  a rallying  cry  for 
the  people.  “ La  Traviata”  made  a failure  at  first  for 
reasons  given  in  another  article. 


214 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


The  whole  list  of  the  operas  mentioned,  with  many 
others  besides,  can  be  dismissed  with  the  observation 
that  they  were  not  high  art,  although  the  singable 
character  of  the  melodies  and  the  easy  flow  of  the 
music  should  redeem  them  from  utter  contempt. 
There  is  much  that  is  enjoyable  even  in  ‘T1  Trova- 
tore.”  “Rigoletto”  contains  a quartet  which  is  in- 
spired. But  these  operas  belong  to  the  composer’s 
second  period  when  he  curbed  his  tendency  to  noise 
and  sensational  tours  deforce^  and  when  individuality 
and  vocal  contrast  took  the  place  oi  fortissimo  ensem- 
ble work.  But  it  is  in  his  third  period  that  Verdi 
deserves  the  recognition  of  all  fair-minded  musicians 
In  “Othello”  and  ‘ ‘ Aida  ” one  finds  dramatic  purpose, 
beautiful  tone-color  and  legitimate  musicianship.  All 
honor  to  the  composer  for  not  having  rested  content 
with  a merely  popular  success,  for  seeking  to  lead 
the  people  to  something  higher,  and  for  evolving 
what  may  truly  be  called  the  operatic  school  of 
modern  Italy  ; and  if  the  new  opera  conies  to  com- 
pletion may  it  redeem  the  failure  made  so  long  ago  in 
this  field  in  a year  when  the  composer  was  so  pro- 
foundly unhappy. 

It  is  because  of  the  deterioration  of  the  operatic 
libretto  that  the  Verdi  of  forty  years  ago  deserved 
censure  chiefly. 

If  Wagner  had  done  nothing  else  but  import  poetry 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  VEBDL 


215 


and  common  sense  into  the  operatic  libretto  he  would 
still  deserve  the  recognition  of  the  world.  In  old 
days  it  seemed  to  l)e  imagined  that  any  subject  would 
do  for  musical  treatment,  and  that  the  words  were 
merely  a peg  on  which  to  hang  the  music.  Telemann 
said  that  he  could  Set  a handbill  to  music,  and  in 
Germany,  during  the  last  century,  much  of  the 
poetry  “ for  music”  was  not  more  inspiring  than  such 
commercial  literature  would  have  been. 

With  all  the  various  kinds  of  homage  that  have 
been  given  to  the  genius  of  Wagner,  few  have  ap- 
preciated the  fidelity  with  which  he  has  reproduced 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  middle  ages.  In 
this  respect  the  great  composer  was  as  much  a his- 
torian as  many  who  have  won  world-wide  celebrity 
in  this  branch  of  literature.  In  “Tannhauser,”  for 
example,  the  manners  of  the  Minnesingers  are  de- 
picted with  as  much  care  as  if  the  opera  were  an 
essay  upon  the  old  epoch  of  German  life.  In  “Lo- 
hengrin,” the  details  of  the  combat,  the  festivities  at 
the  castle,  the  morning  call  of  the  trumpeters,  the 
bridal  processions,  etc.,  are  faithful  reproductions  of 
life  in  mediaeval  times.  But  it  is  in  “Mastersingers  ” 
that  the  master  reaches  the  height  of  detailed  exacti- 
tude. In  this  opera  every  point  of  the  musical  life 
in  Germany  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteeth  centuries  is 
touched  upon,  and  the  work  stands  forth  the  most 
perfect  history  of  its  times. 


216 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


In  France  the  operatic  libretto  was  occasionally 
most  absurd  and  the  dramatic  unities  were  scarcely 
ever  thought  of,  as,  for  example,  the  libretto  Avherein, 
when  the  hero  falls  in  the  water  and  is  drowning,  the 
chorus  sings  a selection  some  five  minutes  long  before 
proceeding  to  his  rescue.  How  many  heroines  have 
gone  mad  in  order  that  the  great  composer  might 
give  all  manner  of  contrasts  in  a “mad  scene  ” in  the 
third  act  of  the  opera  ! ! Dinorah  goes  crazy,  and  a 
shadow  dance  is  the  result ; Linda  is  betrayed  and 
gives  wonderful  cadenzas  in  the  last  act  of  her  opera  ; 
Lucia  di  Lammermoor,  as  all  the  other  operatic 
heroines,  sings  better  the  crazier  she  becomes.  Once 
in  a while  the  composer  allows  his  tenor  to  partake 
of  this  musical  madness,  and  Lionel  in  “Martha” 
sings  most  brilliantly  in  the  moments  when  he  is  not 
lucid.  It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  Wagner 
himself,  in  his  younger  days,  perpetrated  such  a mad 
scene ; in  “Die  Feen,”  his  first  opera,  the  king  goes 
temporarily  insane.  In  those  days,  however,  Wag- 
ner was  frankly  copying  Bellini  and  Auber.  Yerdi 
becomes  quite  angry  if  any  one  asserts  that  he 
has  in  any  way  been  benefited  by  the  labors  of 
Wagner,  but  he  has  certainly  improved  in  a marked 
manner  since  he  has  left  the  old,  conventional  and 
stupid  libretto,  and  the  cause  of  his  taking  up  a 
better  class  of  operatic  subjects  and  loftier  poetry 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  VEBDL 


217 


may  be  sought  in  the  fact  that  Wagner’s  nolhe  poems 
had  made  the  other  school  nntenal)le.  The  contrast 
in  the  case  of  Verdi  is  a most  marked  one.  In 
the  “forties”  he  had  two  poetasters  for  his  lil)ret- 
tists,  and  they  were  rather  his  slaves  than  his  co- 
laborers. Coherency,  possibility,  probability,  his- 
tory, or  literary  beauty  mattered  nothing  to  Verdi  so 
long  as  he  could  make  a musical  point ; he  reversed 
Wagner’s  maxim  and  seemed  to  think  poetry  the 
servant  of  music.  His  disregard  of  history  may  be 
ofathered  from  the  clians^es  which  he  made  in  his 
“Ballo  in  Maschera”  which  was  too  revolutionary  in 
its  assassination  of  Gustavus  III  to  suit  the  police 
in  Naples.  On  this  it  was  taken  to  Rome,  where 
the  authorities  were  disposed  to  allow  its  perform- 
ance provided  the  party  assassinated  were  not  a king. 
Verdi  very  obligingly  changed  the  assassinated  party 
into  a mythical  “Earl  of  Warwick,  Governor  of 
Boston,”  and  had  this  incongruous  Puritan  murdered 
at  a masked  ball  which  presumedly  took  place  at  the 
Massachusetts  State  House  ! Nor  was  this  all,  for 
when  Mario  appeared  in  the  part  he  declined  to  use 
the  Puritan  garb  and  the  governor  aforesaid  became 
metamorphosed  into  a Spanish  don. 

Today  Verdi  collaborates  with  the  most  musical 
poet  of  Italy,  Boito,  and  chooses  Shakespearian  sub- 
jects for  his  muse.  Let  us  be  thankful  that  a thun- 


218 


THE  BEALM  OF  MU8IC. 


de-rstorm  has  cleared  the  atmosphere,  and  that  since  the 
real  dramas  which  have  been  set  to  music  in  Germany 
no  one  dares  to  employ  such  puerilities  as  were  in 
vogue  on  the  operatic  stage  a quarter  of  a century 


MUSICAL  ANTAGONISM. 


Judging  by  some  recent  musical  literature  the 
name  of  Mendelssohn  has  become  a veritable  shib- 
boleth to  the  Wagnerians,  and  that  of  Wagner  serves 
the  same  purpose  in  the  camp  of  the  Mendelssohnians. 
In  recent  days  we  have  read  of  Mr.  Cro west’s  vener- 
ation for  Mendelssohn  as  the  “ last  of  the  Titans,” 
and  also  have  seen  in  Mr.  Kobbe’s  ex(;ellent  life  of 
Wagner,  “the  innocent  respectability”  of  Mendel- 
ssohn’s music.  The  opposition  here  displayed  re- 
minds one  that  there  have  been  many  such  feuds  be- 
tween eminent  composers  (who,  by  the  way,  make  the 
poorest  musical  critics  imaginable) , and  that  poster- 
ity generally  ends  by  accepting  both  of  them.  Wag- 
ner was  the  composer  who  managed  to  antagonize 
more  composers  than  anybody  else.  He  disliked 
Schumann  and  said  of  him  that  he  had  “a  certain 
tendency  towards  greatness  ” and  uttered  many  other 
sarcastic  sentences  of  a similar  tendency,  while  Schu- 
mann remarked,  “Wagner  is,  to  tell  the  truth,  not  a 
good  musician.  His  music  is  hollow,  disagreeable, 
(219) 


220 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


and  often  amateurish.  The  world  has,  however,  ac- 
cepted both.  Mendelssohn  described  Wagner  as  a 
“talented  dilettant.”  Wagner  and  Schumann  both 
attacked  Meyerbeer,  but  “Les  Huguenots”  is  yet  to 
be  heard  on  the  operatic  stage  when  a grand  enough 
singer  can  be  found  for  the  fourth  act.  Beethoven 
despised  A¥eber,  and  said  that  “he  never  attained 
more  than  the  art  of  pleasing,”  while  Weber,  who  had 
a very  poor  opinion  of  Beethoven,  wrote  a satirical 
article  on  the  finale  of  the  fourth  symphony,  and 
after  the  first  performance  of  the  seventh  symphony 
said  “Beethoven  is  now  quite  ready  for  the  insane 
asylum.”  Yet  Weber’s  music  has  not  diminished  in 
lustre,  even  in  the  sunlight  of  Beethoven’s  greatness. 
Handel  laughed  at  the  musical  efibrts  of  Gluck  and 
said,  “He  knows  no  more  of  counterpoint  than  my 
cook!”  yet  the  glory  of  “Orpheus”  has  not  passed 
away,  although  it  is  more  than  a century  since  it  was 
composed.  If  Johnson,  as  has  been  said,  “liked  a 
good  hater,”  then  he  should  have  studied  the  lives  of 
the  great  composers  and  he  would  have  found  de- 
light in  their  interminable  quarrels  and  recriminations . 
These  acrimonious  antagonisms  may  have  arisen  from 
the  fact  that  each  composer  is  thoroughly  wedded 
to  some  particular  school,  and  so  closely  that  he  can- 
not see  any  merit  in  any  other.  It  may  be  also  that 
the  emotional  nature  inseparable  from  the  true  com- 


MUSICAL  ANTAGONISM. 


221 


poser  lias  something  to  do  with  these  strong  dislikes. 
Yet  in  these  latter  days  when  the  bitter  [)amplilets  of 
Wagner  are  so  widel}^  read  it  may  be  well  to  draw  a 
lesson  from  the  past,  and  not  give  adhesion  to  the 
antipathies  of  any  composer,  however  great  he  may 
be,  and  it  may  be  as  well,  too,  to  remember  the  hict, 
that  one  school  of  music  does  not  necessarily  abolish 
another. 


ANCIENT  ESTIMATES  OF 
THE  POWER  OF  MUSIC. 


In  ancient  days  when  music  was  held  to  mean  more 
than  a mere  succession  of  tones,  and  combined  poetry, 
the  laws  of  symmetry,  mathematics  and  melody  in  a 
harmonious  whole,  poetry  and  music  were  indisso- 
lubly connected  and  the  poet  was  a musician,  the 
musician  a poet.  The  Hindoos  therefore  admitted 
the  natural  and  philosophical  part  of  music  into  their 
holiest  book  — the  Veda  — while  admitting  the 
science  of  tones  only  to  the  second  division  of  Lesser 
Sciences.  The  ancient  Egyptians  divided  music  into 
two  kinds,  the  good  and  the  evd,  and  held  the  former 
kind  to  have  its  origin  in  the  harmony  of  the  spheres, 
an  idea  which  Pythagoras  afterwards  introduced  into 
Greece.  The  Egyptians  did  not  admit  much  music 
in  their  religious  rites,  and  this  is  a notable  excep- 
tion to  the  custom  of  ancient  nations,  for  the  Greek, 
the  Roman,  the  early  Christian,  and,  above  all,  the 
Hebrew,  made  music  the  art  which  was  to  be  chiefly 
dedicated  to  the  service  of  religion.  The  Hebrews 


( 222  ) 


ANCIENT  ESTIMATES  OF  MUSIC. 


223 


in  Jerusalem  of  old  united  dancing  with  music,  but 
this  dancing  must  not  be  understood  in  the  modern 
sense,  for  it  was  chiefly  pantomimic,  consisting  of 
expressive  gestures;  what  we  now  call  “dramatic 
action”  would  come  very  near  to  describing  the 
ancient  dances.  Pythagoras  held  that  all  music  came 
directly  from  nature;  “All  is  number  and  harmony” 
was  his  favorite  maxim.  He  attempted  to  reproduce 
the  harmony  of  the  spheres  in  the  scale,  even  going 
so  far  as  to  give  the  names  of  the  planets  to  the  differ- 
ent notes,  the  earth  being  the  controlling  tonic  note. 
The  order  of  the  Pythagoreans  which  he  founded, 
and  which  embraced  among  its  members  the  leading 
noblemen  or  partricians  of  Greece  and  Italy,  believed 
in  music  as  one  of  the  most  elevating  of  arts,  and 
mathematics,  music  and  astronomy  were  studied 
faithfully  by  them,  and  believed  to  intertwine.  It  was 
obligatory  to  play  on  the  lyre  in  the  morning  to  set 
the  soul  in  tune  for  the  trial  and  labor  of  the  day,  and 
the  same  process  was  employed  at  night  to  calm  the 
disciple  and  purify  the  spirit.  Whenever  any  great 
excitement  came  to  a Pythagorean,  the  aid  of  music 
was  sought  to  restore  the  equilibrium.  Other  ancient 
philosophers  also  used  music  and  appreciated  its 
power,  although  not  in  so  great  a degree  as  Pytha- 
goras. Plato,  for  example,  while  acknowledging  the 
power  of  vocal  music,  set  his  face  against  instrumen- 


224 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


tal  music,  and  said,  “the  use  of  instruments  without 
the  voice  is  barbarism  and  quackery.”  Aristotle, 
however,  was  more  liberal  in  the  matter,  and  said 
that  music  was  a delight,  whether  instrumental  or 
in  combination  with  the  voice,  but  he  excluded  the 
flute  from  this  dictum,  as  he  thought  that  instrument 
immoral  and  only  capable  of  inflaming  the  passions. 
Plutarch  defended  the  flute  and  it  became  afterwards 
the  religious  instrument  of  ancient  Eome.  It  is  a 
great  pity  that  among  all  these  estimates  of  the 
power  of  music  we  can  form  no  sure  opinion  as  to 
the  merits  of  the  ancient  music,  for  every  detail  of 
its  practical  execution  has  been  lost. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
TECHNIQUE. 


It  is  interesting  to  note  how  exactly  the  progress 
of  piano  technique  has  kept  pace  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  instrument.  When  the  staccato  spinet 
and  clavichord  were  the  instruments  representing 
this  school  of  music  there  were  absolutely  no  rules 
of  fingering,  the  thumb  was  not  used  at  all,  and  the 
hand  was  allowed  to  skip  about  without  any  guide 
save  the  caprice  of  the  performer.  Sometimes  only 
two  fingers  were  employed.  Domenico  Scarlatti 
used  the  full  set  of  fingers  (but  very  rarely  the 
thumb)  and  invented  the  crossing  of  the  hands  in 
pianoforte  music.  Bach  first  brought  the  thumbs  into 
regular  use,  and  the  position  with  the  thumb  on  the 
key-board  was  long  called  the  “Bach-Griff.”  His 
son  Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  brought  in  the  system 
of  scale  fingering  and  may  be  styled  “the  father  of 
piano-technique,”  for  the  foundation  of  our  system 
is  to  be  found  in  his  “Art  of  clavichord  playing,” 
the  first  technical  work  of  any  real  value.  We  have 
( 225  ) 


226 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


already  stated  that  Beethoven’s  orchestral  mind  en- 
riched the  piano  by  demanding  greater  effects,  some- 
times too  great  effects,  from  it.  Hummel  also  must 
be  credited  with  advancing  the  instrument,  es- 
pecially in  the  matter  of  embellishments,  reforming 
the  old  school,  and  systematizing  what  he  retained, 
dementi  also  belongs  to  this  epoch,  and  did  yeo- 
man’s servive  in  building  a new  technique.  The 
piano  was  now  fairly  launched,  yet  there  was  no  sus- 
picion of  the  great  importance  it  was  to  assume,  nor 
the  wonderful  effects  that  would  yet  be  drawn  from 
it.  Moscheles  represents  the  transition  period  to- 
ward the  new  school,  and  his  studies  are  still  held  as 
valuable  contributions  to  the  student’s  repertoire. 
Thalberg  first  brought  the  legato  into  proper  prom- 
inence and  showed  how  to  make  the  piano  sing.  In 
Liszt  however,  came  the  culmination,  and  through 
him  and  the  poet  of  the  piano,  Chopin,  we  have 
reached  a point  of  technique  beyond  which  it  wdll  be 
almost  impossible  to  go,  until  further  improvements 
are  made  in  the  instrument. 

There  is  but  little  doubt  that  the  technique  of 
the  modern  musician  has  advanced  far  beyond  the 
standard  attained  in  the  preceding  centuries.  This 
is  the  true  era  of  execution,  and  the  most  marked 
progress  has  been  made  in  all  the  departments  of 
performance  save  one,  — vocal  work.  The  orchestra 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TECHNIQUE.  227 


plays  better  than  it  did  during  the  classical  epoch, 
and  Beethoven  never  heard  his  symphonies  so  well 
performed  as  they  are  nowadays  by  the  great  or- 
chestras such  as  Pasdeloup’s,  or  the  Viennese  Or- 
chestra under  Gericke,  or  the  Boston  Symphony  Or- 
chestra. This  comes  from  the  fact  that  public  sup- 
port of  concerts  makes  a greater  outlay  of  money 
upon  them  possible,  advance  in  public  taste  makes 
more  rehearsals  a necessity,  and  the  great  de- 
mands made  on  the  orchestral  player  by  the  modern 
composer  have  led  to  a much  higher  standard  of  in- 
dividual excellence.  A few  details  will  suffice  to  show 
the  last-named  fact.  In  the  last  century , and  through- 
out the  classical  period,  the  orchestral  composer 
thought  that  he  was  sufficiently  exacting  if  he  de- 
nianded  a three-lined  G from  the  violins,  while  now 
almost  any  composer  will  go  a fourth  above  this  note 
without  any  compunctions.  Beethoven,  Mozart, 
Haydn,  Bach,  etc.,  would  not  make  use  of  violin  har- 
monics in  their  orchestral  works,  as  they  thought 
them  too  difficult  to  be  well  executed  ; Wagner  in  his 
prelude  to  “ Lohengrin”  and  in  other  cases  has 
used  these  high  tones  freely  and  has  been  followed 
by  many  modern  composers.  The  old  composers  did 
not  make  use  of  the  pedal-tones  of  the  trombones, 
considering  them  also  as  too  difficult  for  the  orches- 
tral player ; the  moderns  use  them  freely.  The  im- 


228 


THE  BEALM  OF  AIUSIG. 


provements  in  instruments,  as  Boehm’s  keying  of 
the  flute  and  Erard’s  double-action  pedal  for  the 
harp,  have  also  had  something  to  do  with  this  progress, 
and  we  may  rest  serenely  content  in  the  conviction 
that  we  are  hearing  music  better  performed  than  it 
has  been  in  any  epoch  of  the  history  of  the  art. 

The  earliest  pianos  were  so  crude  that  they  did  not 
oust  the  clavichords,  harpsichords  and  spinets  for 
nearly  a century , from  the  date  of  their  invention. 
Even  the  piano  of  Beethoven’s  time  was  crude  and  un- 
satisfactory. It  seems  strange  to  many  that  Beetho- 
ven could  have  written  his  great  Sonata  Op.  106,  for 
so  clumsy  an  instrument,*  and  there  are  too  many 
who  ascribe  this  to  the  prescience  of  genius.  It  was 
rather  due  to  another  cause ; Beethoven’s  was  an 
orchestral  mind ; whatever  he  thought  in  music 
came  first  to  him  with  the  tone  color  of  some  orchestral 
instrument.  We  have  his  own  statement  confirming 
this  fact.  All  his  piano  sonatas  are  orchestral  works 
set  in  a piano  notation  only,  and  therefore,  as  the 
modern  piano  became  more  and  more  orchestral,  it 
approached  closer  and  closer  to  the  Beethoven  thought 
as  expressed  in  the  sonatas ; but  the  Op.  106  is  still 
beyond  even  the  modern  piano,  and  remains  a thinly 
disguised  orchestral  work,  full  of  the  noblest 

*Yet  the  “hammer  Klavier”  for  which  this  was  written  was 
much  in  advance  of  preceding  instruments  of  the  piano  family. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TECHNIQUE.  229 


thoughts,  which  however,  require  a broader  vehicle 
of  expression. 

We  have  said  that  improvements  in  different  in- 
struments, as  the  flute,  and  the  harp,  have  affected 
the  modern  sehool  of  composition.  In  no  case  has 
this  been  so  marked  however,  as  in  the  development 
of  the  piano.  We  have  intimated  that  the  predeces- 
sors of  this  instrument  merely  gave  a constant  suc- 
cession of  staccato  effects ; the  consequence  was  that 
the  composers  overcame  this  defect  by  introducing 
trills  and  other  embellishments  ad  infinitum.  What 
began  in  necessity  soon  became  the  foundation  of  a 
false  taste,  and  the  performers  of  the  last  century 
added  their  own  embellishments  to  those  of  the  com- 
poser, so  that  in  France  there  were  spinet  players 
who  have  boasted  that  they  could  give  an  embellish- 
ment to  every  note  of  a piece,  from  beginning  to  end. 
Naturally  on  such  instruments,  finger  action  only  was 
cultivated,  and  even  this  is  but  a crude  and  perfunc- 
tory manner,  totally  different  from  the  systematic 
training  of  today. 

In  piano-playing  technical  ability  has  been  pushed 
far  beyond  what  the  players  of  a couple  of  genera- 
tions ago  would  have  deemed  possible  and  it  is  cer- 
tain that  in  this  case  at  least,  virtuosity  is  its  own  re- 
ward. The  cause  of  this  is  found  in  the  fact,  that  while 
the  pianist  of  the  classical  period  was  an  all-round 


230 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


musician,  the  pianist  of  today  is  generally  a specialist. 
The  pianists  of  Beethoven’s  time,  generally  played 
some  other  instrument  as  well.  As  they  could 
not  make  a livelihood  by  mere  piano-playing,  they 
generally  added  to  it  violin,  viola,  and  other  or- 
chestral instruments  by  means  of  which  they  would 
enter  some  orchestra.  Now-a-days  the  artist  is  able 
to  devote  his  entire  life  to  the  piano,  and  still  reap 
a pecuniary  reward.  Eight  and  ten  hours  of  practice, 
each  day,  have  wrought  wonders,  and  the  modern 
piano  virtuoso  has  probably  attained  very  nearly  the 
utmost  limit  of  skill  in  rapidity  and  delicacy  of 
finger  action  at  least. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  general  advance  in  musi- 
cal technique,  yet  have  made  one  exception  — vocal 
work.  In  the  matter  of  vocal  technique  there  has 
not  only  been  no  advance  but  there  has  been  retro- 
gression from  the  solid  work  done  in  past  days. 
It  is  a very  evident  fact  that  the  sbiger  now-a-days 
is  the  “spoilt  child”  of  music;  generally  he  is  not 
so  thorough  a musician  as  the  pianist,  and  imagines 
that,  because  nature  has  given  him  a good  larynx, 
whence  he  can  force  a high  C,  he  is  absolved  from 
much  musical  study.  It  was  not  so  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, in  the  days  of  Porpora,  of  Cafiarelli,  and  of 
Farinelli ; then  the  vocalist,  however  gifted,  was 
obliged  to  study  with  the  same  thoroughness  as  other 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TECHNIQUE. 


231 


musicians.  In  fact  the  singer  should  study  more 
than  the  other  musicians  for  he  has  a doul)Ie  work  to 
accomplish.  The  violinist  can  buy  a fine  Amati  or 
Stradivarius,  and  starts  equipped  with  a perfect  in- 
strument ; the  vocalist  does  not ; he  has  first  to  make 
his  instrument,  for  almost  every  voice  has  physical 
defects  at  the  outset,  and,  after  that,  one  has  to  study 
its  use.  Most  especially  in  America  is  the  haste 
which  is  displayed  in  musical  study  fatal  to  really 
good  singing.  There  is  no  l)ranch  of  musical  study 
which  needs  to  proceed  more  slowly  than  vocal  work. 
^^Festina  Lente  ” ought  to  be  written  over  every  vo- 
cal teacher’s  door.  And  if,  when  the  vocalist  has 
mastered  his  branch  of  work,  he  would  also  pay 
some  attention  to  the  study  of  harmony,  orchestra- 
tion, etc.,  we  should  have  better  musicians  in  the 
vocal  ranks,  and  a high  note,  would  no  longer,  like 
charity,  cover  a multitude  of  sins. 

Very  few  of  those  who  merely  dabble  in  music, 
ever  dream  of  the  pleasure  that  would  be  added  to  a 
merely  technical  performance,  if  a knowledge  of  mu- 
sical form,  also,  were  added  to  the  education  of  the 
fingers.  Probably  not  one  in  a hundred  of  the 
drawing-room  amateurs  knows  anything  al)out  the 
architecture  of  the  pieces  so  glibly  played.  It  may 
have  been  Madame  de  Stael  who  said  “Architecture 
is  frozen  Music,”  but  it  can  be  asseverated  with 


232 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


equal  truth  that  Music  of  the  classical  order  is  as 
shapely,  as  generally  symmetrical,  as  a cathedral  or 
a castle.  It  is  only  that  performer  who  can  recognize 
the  relationship  of  the  component  parts  to  the  whole, 
who  can  give  a really  intelligent  rendering  of  the 
composer’s  intention.  If  two  pianists  of  equal  tech- 
nical abilities  perform  a Beethoven  Sonata,  the  clearer 
presentation  will  be  given  by  the  one  who  knows 
exactly  what  constitutes  the  chief  theme,  where  the 
second  theme  begins  and  ends,  what  portions  of  the 
subject  matter  the  development  is  dealing  with, 
when  the  return  of  themes  takes  place,  what  the 
coda  is  built  upon,  etc.,  etc.  But  there  are  smaller 
divisions  than  these  which  demand  recognition. 
Just  as  poetry  is  built  up  from  syllable  to  poetic 
foot,  from  foot  to  line,  and  from  line  to  stanza,  mu- 
sic can  be  synthetically  followed  from  note  to  sec- 
tion, from  section  to  phrase,  and  from  phrase  to  pe- 
riod, and  a knowledge  of  musical  form  is  absolutely 
essential  to  a proper  presentation  of  these.  In  po- 
etry these  divisions  become  in  part  recognizable  by 
the  spacing  of  the  printer.  The  line  in  poetry 
stands  by  itself,  while  the  correlative  phrase  in  mu- 
sic is  merged  into  the  general  mass ; yet  the  true 
reader  senses  the  lesser  accents  and  divisions  which 
cause  hexameter,  pentameter,  etc.,  and  the  Iambus, 
the  Trochee,  the  Amphibrach,  or  the  Anapaest,  are 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TECHNIQUE.  233 


recognized  in  accent  if  not  always  in  name.  Wliat 
would  one  think,  for  example,  of  a reader  who 
would  render  the  first  stanza  of  “ Casahianea  ” — 

“The  boy  stood; 

On  the  burning  deck  whence  all, 

But  he  had  fled  the  flames. 

That  lit  the  battle’s  wreck. 

Shone  on  him  o'er  the  dead.  ” 

The  above  seems  absurd  in  every  feature,  yet  ex- 
actly such  absurdities  are  frequently  perpetrated  by 
those  who  attempt  to  play  classical  pieces  without 
having  some  knowledge  of  their  architecture.  Let 
any  person  without  a perception  of  the  subtleties 
of  musical  phrasing,  try  to  perform  a piano  tran- 
scription of  the  Scherzo  movement  of  Beethoven’s 
Ninth  Symphony,  especially  in  the  passages  where 
three-barred  and  four-barred  rhythms  follow  each 
other,  and  he  will  make  of  it  something  akin  to  the 
disguise  of  the  familiar  quotation  above.  If  such 
knowledge  is  necessary  in  the  performance  of  sym- 
phony or  sonata,  in  fugues  it  becomes  still  more  im- 
perative. It  is  very  seldom  that  one  hears  an  amateur 
play  a fugue  intelligibly.  The  fugue  is  the  very  flower 
of  musical  form,  the  perfection  of  logic  in  music. 
Here,  more  than  in  any  other  style  of  composition, 
one  can  watch  the  growth  of  a musical  figure  or 
phrase  into  a whole  composition  as  a seed  grows 


234 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


into  a tree.  Yet  all  this  logic,  all  this  growth,  is  lost 
to  the  sense  if  the  performer  has  not  studied  musical 
analysis  and  form.  Many  of  those  who  attain  to 
sonata  or  fugue  playing  commit  the  error  of  study- 
ing musical  architecture  after  they  have  acquired 
technical  ability  : this  is  putting  the  cart  before  the 
horse  with  a vengeance  (or  building  the  house  from 
the  roof  downward)  for  if  the  study  is  taken  up  si- 
multaneously with  the  work  of  classical  playing  the 
labor- of  both  is  lightened,  one  assisting  the  other. 

Yor  can  the  opponent  of  such  study  escape  into 
the  domains  of  Wagner’s  music  : it  is  not  formless, 
this  so-called  “ music  of  the  future,”  but  simply  in  a 
new  form,  and  in  all  the  opei’as  from  “ Lohengrin” 
to  “'Parsifal”  the  student  will  find  a figure  develop- 
ment that  is  luxuriant  and  complex  beyond  belief. 
Therefore  whether  the  young  musician  is  radical  or 
conservative,  whether  he  intends  to  compose  or 
teach,  whether  he  desires  to  become  a concert  artist 
or  only  to  play  in  private  “for  his  own  amazement,” 
he  is  still  bound  to  devote  a reasonable  part  of  his 
time  to  the  study  of  the  architecture  of  his  Art. 


EMOTION  IN  PERFORM- 
ANCE. 


There  is  no  point  in  music  so  generally  misun- 
derstood by  the  amateur  as  the  proper  use  of  emo- 
tion in  performance.  The  amateur  believes  that  if 
he  is  dreadfully  moved  by  some  musical  work,  the 
audience  must  surely  share  his  extreme  excitement, 
and  is  much  astonished  when  he  finds  that  the  public 
grows  more  cold  as  he  grows  more  hysterical.  The 
professional  rules  his  emotion,  and  causes  it  to  work 
its  greatest  effect  upon  the  audience  ; the  amateur 
allows  it  to  expend  all  its  force  upon  himself,  and  is 
thereby  rendered  partially  unable  to  regulate  the  im- 
pressions made  upon  others. 

One  reads  many  pretty  anecdotes  of  singers  giving 
selections  at  this  or  that  occasion  of  solemnity,  with 
tears  streaming  down  their  cheeks  ; it  is  as  well  to 
pause  a moment,  however,  and  remember  that  under 
such  circumstances  the  singing  must  have  been  re- 
markably poor;  “tears  in  the  voice,”  may  be  a very 
. (235) 


236 


THE  BEALM  OF  MU8IC. 


poetical  expression,  but  they  are  rather  bad  for  the 
action  of  the  larynx. 

When  Patti  sings  “Home,  Sweet  Home  ” how  many 
exclaim  “Oh  ! how  she  must  feel  that  song;”  not  at 
all ! her  “lowly  thatched  cottage”  is  not  even  in  her 
native  country,  and  cost  a million  dollars  or  so.  We 
have  heard  her  sing  this  song  a dozen  times,  and 
each  time  with  exactly  the  same  shading,  the  same 
sigh  on  “Ho-o-o-me,”  the  same  apparent  emotion. 
It  is  reasonable  enough  to  suppose  if  she  has  sung 
this  song  over  five  hundred  times,  that  part  of  the 
emotion  has  oozed  away.  Yet  at  one  time  there  must 
have  been  a degree  of  emotion,  but,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  well  combined  with  artistic  instinct = 
Let  us  borrow  an  instance  from  the  field  of  drama. 
An  amateur  is  playing  the  part  of  Richelieu  in  Bul- 
wer-Lytton’s  well-known  work.  He  comes  upon  the 
great  lines — 

Ha ! say  you  so  ! Then  wake  the  silent  power, 

Which,  in  the  age  of  iron,  hurst  forth  to  curb  the  great  and 
raise  the  low : 

Mark  where  she  stands 

Around  the  form  I draw,”  etc.,  etc. 

He  feels  aroused  by  their  loftiness,  he  is  filled  to 
overflowing  with  their  grandeur,  he  is  stifling  with 
the  breadth  of  the  climax, — and  the  audience  only 
see  a ranter  in  a ridiculous  state  of  excitement  and 
vehemence. 


EMOTION  IN  PEBFOBMANCE. 


237 


Now  a great  professional  takes  the  same  phrases  ; 
Edwin  Booth  has  recited  them  Imndrcds  of  times  ; he 
perceives  all  the  points  that  the  intelligent  but  emo- 
tional amateur  has  been  crushed  by,  and  he  determines 
to  deliver  over  these  emotions  intact  to  the  audience  ; 
he  dares  not  lose  sight  of  any  part  of  the  vehicles 
which  are  to  do  this  ; he  knows,  and  thinks  of  each 
gesture  that  is  lofty,  he  uses  all  the  loftiness  of  oro- 
tund voice  ; the  audience  is  moved  and  thrilled, — the 
actor  is  not  cold,  either,  but  he  has  schooled  his  facul- 
ties so  that  while  sensing  an  emotion  he  does  not 
permit  it  to  overthrow  him.  The  musician  must  work 
on  the  same  principle  ; he  must  study  to  transmit  his 
emotions  to  the  public,  and  not  allow  the  flames  to 
burn  themselves  out  in  his  own  person. 


SHAKESPEARE  AND 
GOETHE  IN  MUSIC. 


It  may  be  regarded  as  an  axiom  that  great  poets 
produce  great  musicians.  Whenever  a poet  gives 
forth  a lofty  thought  there  is  sure  soon  to  come  a 
composer  to  give  it  a worthy  musical  setting.  The 
influence  of  poets  on  music  may  therefore  be  regarded 
as  a very  real  one.  Shakespeare,  for  example,  has 
been  the  cause  of  more  compositions,  the  inspiration 
of  more  composers  than  any  other  poet.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  speak  here  of  the  musical  taste  which 
Shakespeare  himself  possessed  ; suffice  it  to  enumer- 
ate a few  of  the  great  musical  works  to  which  his 
plays  have  led.  “The  Tempest”  has  given  rise  to  a 
symphonic  poem  by  John  K.  Paine,  and  a ballet  ( ! !) 
by  Ambroise  Thomas.  “The  Merry  Wives  of  Wind- 
sor” has  become  a fine  comic  opera  in  the  hands  of 
Nicolai,  and  rumor  says  that  Yerdi  is  now  essaying 
the  same  opera  in  vaster  style,  while  such  composers 
as  Salieri,  Balfe,  Adolphe  Adam  and  Ritter  have  used 
the  libretto  at  one  time  or  another.  “Measure  for 


SHAKE8PEABE  AXD  GOETHE  IN  AIUSIC.  239 


Measure”  led  Wagner  to  compose  “Das  Liebesverbot” 
and  the  influence  of  Shakespeare  on  this  great  com- 
poser was  always  powerful.  “Midsummer  Night’s 
Dream  ” caused  Mendelssohn  to  write  his  playful 
overture,  his  grandest  march,  and  some  of  his  dain- 
tiest music  in  shorter  form.  “The  Taming  of  the 
Shrew”  introduced  a real  genius  to  the  world  (alas, 
too  late  to  save  him  from  a death  caused  by  poverty) 
in  the  shape  of  Goetz.  “Macbeth”  inspired  Yerdi. 
“Richard  III”  caused  Yolkmann  to  compose  a fine 
overture  and  to  introduce  “The  Campbells  are  cornin’  ” 
a century  before  it  was  written  I “Coriolanus,” 
brought  forth  nothing,  although  Beethoven’s  over- 
ture, written  on  Collin’s  drama,  might  suit  well 
enough  to  Shakespeare’s  also.  “King  Henry  YIII” 
caused  St.  Saens  to  write  a very  long  opera  which 
deviates  greatly  from  the  Shakesperian  plot,  but  con- 
tains a pretty  Scotch  l^allet  and  some  lofty  music. 
“Julius  Caesar”  gave  Schumann  an  opportunity  to 
produce  a large  overture.  “Romeo  and  Juliet”  has 
inspired  many  composers  ; firstly  Bellini  set  it  as  “I 
Montecchi  ed  i Capuletti,”  and  then  Gounod  used  the 
libretto ; as  an  overture  it  appears  among  Tschai- 
kowsky’s  compositions  and  is  his  best  work  in  that 
form,  becoming  almost  a symphonic  poem  ; Feydeau, 
Yaccai,  and  Zingarelli  used  it;-  but  the  best  inspira. 
tion  in  music  which  arose  through  this  noble  play  was 


240 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Berlioz’s  symphony  of  the  same  name,  for  in  it  the 
French  composer  tells  the  story  of  his  affection  and 
of  his  own  Juliet,  (Harriet  Smithson)  and  besides  he 
was  a devout  Shakesperian  as  far  as  his  French  in- 
stincts would  allow  him  to  be.  “Hamlet”  has  been 
set  by  Thomas,  and  in  a more  worthy  manner  than 
the  “Tempest”  noted  above,  for  this  time  we  find  an 
opera  and  not  a ballet.  “Othello”  was  weakly  set  by 
Rossini,  but  became  the  grandest  opera  of  the  whole 
Italian  repertoire  of  recent  days  through  the  com- 
bined efforts  of  Boito  and  Yerdi.  Surely  the  fount 
from  which  the  composers  have  drawn  is  a noble  one, 
and  it  is  not  dry  yet  nor  are  all  the  compositions  that 
were  taken  from  it  mentioned  above,  but  sufiicient  has 
been  collated  to  show  that  Shakespeare’s  influence 
was  a very  great  one  in  the  realm  of  music. 

Although  Shakespeare  has  been  more  universally 
set  to  music  than  any  other  poet,  yet  certain  subjects 
used  by  lesser  writers  have  achieved  an  amount  of 
musical  setting  that  is  almost  incredible.  The  legend 
of  Faust  seems  at  all  times  to  have  had  an  attraction 
for  composers,  and  most  of  these  who  have  used  the 
subject  have  employed  Goethe’s  great  philosophical 
poem  as  the  basis  of  their  music.  Probably  the  com- 
poser who  came  nearest  to  the  poet’s  ideal  was  Schu- 
mann, who  caught  something  of  the  contemplative 
character  of  the  subject,  although  one  could  well  have 


SHAKES  PE  ABE  AND  GOETHE  IN  MUSIC.  241 


spared  the  setting  of  the  weaker,  third  part  of  the 
poem.  Liszt  used  the  subject  as  a symphony,  in 
which  Marguerite  is  the  most  excellently  characterized 
figure.  lYagner  in  a Faust  overture  strove  to  depict 
the  character  of  Faust  alone,  without  introducing 
Gretchen  at  all.  Gounod,  on  the  contrary,  makes 
his  opera  of  “Faust”  hinge  chiefly  on  the  character  of 
the  heroine,  and  the  Germans  justly  call  the  work 
“Margarethe.”  Berlioz,  with  his  customary  morbid 
style,  turned  from  the  Goethian  story,  which  ends 
with  the  salvation  of  Faust,  and  produced  a work  in 
which  the  hero  is  sent  to  perdition,  and  which  is 
called  “The  Damnation  of  Faust.”  Among  large 
subjects  “Faust”  is  the  one  best  supplied  with  music 
from  different  sources,  and  probably  the  many  con- 
trasts of  the  subject,  the  fiery,  proud  character  of 
Faust,  the  delicate  and  womanly  Marguerite,  the 
sardonic,  mocking,  merciless  Mephistopheles,  con- 
tribute to  this. 

When  we  turn  to  smaller  poems,  however,  it  is  not 
so  easy  to  see  why  certain  ones  should  be  so  pre-em- 
inent in  the  minds  of  different  composers.  “Du  hist 
wie  eine  Blume”  (Thou  art  like  a Flower)  is  prob- 
ably the  most  composed  poem  in  the  world.  4Ye 
have  seen  some  eighty  settings  of  this  poem,  and 
there  are  over  two  hundred  in  existence.  Goethe’s 
“Ueber  alien  Gipfeln  ist  Kuh”  is  a prime  favorite  in 


242 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Germany,  and  there  are  countless  settings  of  this  in 
different  languages,  even  in  the  Russian.  Among 
English  poems  Tennyson’s  Break,  Break,  Break  !” 
seems  to  take  the  lead.  The  two  first  poems  having 
been  set  to  music  by  great  composers,  one  would 
think  that  the  lesser  lights  would  let  them  alone,  but 
experience  teaches  that  the  reverse  is  the  case ; the 
moment  a master  has  set  a poem  to  glorious  music, 
all  the  composerlings  rush  to  the  same  subject  to  show 
how  much  there  is  in  the  poem  that  Schubert,  or 
Franz,  or  Schumann,  or  Brahms,  have  failed  to  per- 
ceive. 


MUSICAL  NOVELS. 


There  are,  among  the  many  who  take  up  the 
study  of  music,  and  the  many  more  who  take  an  in- 
terest in  the  art,  a host  who  desire  to  be  fed  on  senti- 
mentality and  imagine  that  it  is  one  of  the  fittest 
adjuncts  of  tonal  work.  These  misguided  ones  never 
hear  a l>eautiful  musical  work  without  desiring  at 
once  to  know  ‘ ‘ its  story  ” and  they  imagine  that 
to  every  such  composition  there  must  be  joined 
some  personal  anecdote.  It  is  to  this  large,  but 
misguided,  public  that  the  musical  novel  is  generally 
addressed ; it  gives  them  every  possible  anecdote  re- 
garding musical  compositions  and  their  creation, 
and  where  no  such  anecdotes  exist,  it  invents  them. 
The  influence  is  a most  baneful  one.  Pure  music 
can  be  enjoyed  without  any  knowledge  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  its  production,  but  if,  after  learning 
a noble  composition,  one  desires  to  study  its  his- 
tory, and  something  of  the  composer,  at  least  one 
should  seek  for  the  original  truth,  and  not  allow 
fancy  to  run  riot.  The  chief  fault  to  be  found 


244 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


with  most  musical  novels  is  that  they  mix  truth 
with  fiction  in  inextricable  confusion.  “ Charles 
Auchester  ” is  a type  of  such  a school  of  writing, 
and  has  done  probably,  as  much  harm  as  any  quasi- 
musical work  ever  written.  Musical  students  im- 
agine a vague  Mendelssohn,  and  an  impossible  Joa- 
chim after  mooning  over  its  pages.  Yet  worse,  are 
those  “Musical  (?)  Sketches”  which  give  a false 
history  of  a special  work,  for  they  prevent  a proper 
perfomiance  and  a correct  appreciation  of  the  par- 
ticular composition  of  which  they  treat. 

Beethoven,  for  example,  wrote  his  Opus  27,  Yo. 
2 as  a Sonata  in  the  free  style  of  a fantasia.  He 
had  no  thought  of  an  especial  romance,  no  regular 
and  precise  story  to  convey,  but  allowed  the  music 
to  exert  its  true  function  and  stimulate  each  one 
who  heard  it  to  poetic  ideas  and  beautiful  thoughts. 
That  each  auditor  should  wreathe  some  different 
dream  or  weave  some  different  train  of  thought 
around  it  was  natural  and  proper,  for  people  draw 
thoughts  from  music  only  in  proportion  to  their 
own  natures.  But  there  comes  along  the  musical 
romancer,  and  at  once  writes  out  a story  of  the  “Moon- 
light Sonata,”  and  brings  in  a blind  girl,  a forest  in 
the  moonlight,  and  heaven  knows  what  other  theat- 
rical and  sensational  adjunct,  and  the  deed  is  done ; 
henceforth  the  noble  army  of  musical  gushers  will 


MUSICAL  NOVELS. 


245 


rhapsodize  about  the  work,  chiefly  because  of  the 
sentimental  tale  ; the  story  will  bo  first,  the  music 
second,  in  their  shallow  pates,  ever  after,  and  when 
a pianist  like  von  Biilow  confirms  their  romanticism 
by  playing  the  work  with  the  lights  turned  down, 
they  imagine  that  they  have  “ confirmation,  strong 
as  Holy  A^'rit.” 

Schumann  wrote  a dainty  little  composition  in 
which  by  upward  progressions,  by  short  phrases, 
and  by  an  imperfect  cadence  at  the  close,  he  pro- 
duced an  interrogatory  eftect ; most  appropriately  he 
entitled  it  “Warum?” — “Why?”  It  was  one  of 
a set  of  works  called  “ Phantasie  Stiicke,”  and  w\as 
dedicated  to  a Miss  Laidlaw.  But  circumstances 
like  these  have  no  power  on  the  musical  romancer ; 
the  work  becomes  in  his  hands  a proposal  of  mar- 
riage ! Schumann  is  separated  from  his  Clara  ; she 
pines  alone, — so  does  he;  the  father,  Friedrich 
Wieck,  will  not  be  moved ; at  last  Schumann  writes 
this  little  composition  and  has  it  conveyed  to  Clara 
Wieck ; she  looks  it  over,  she  comprehends  it,  and 
rushes  to  her  stern  parent  with  it ; he  too  reads  it 
over ; he  is  melted  ; he  sends  for  Schumann,  joins 
the  hands  of  the  young  lovers  — ‘ ‘ Take  her  and  be 
happy  ; bless  you  my  children  ! ! ” Is  it  not  all  too 
weak  and  puerile  to  be  tolerated  ? Yet  spite  of  the 
fact  that  Schumann  brought  suit  at  law,  whereby  he 


246 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


finally  forced  old  Wieck’s  consent,  there  are  thou- 
sands and  tens  of  thousands  who  prefer  the  cheap 
tale  as  given  above,  and  love  to  have  it  related  to 
them  when  listening  to  the  Schumann  composition. 

Do  we  need  the  musical  romance  or  novel? 
Would  musical  literature  be  prosaic  without  it? 
Not  at  all ! Let  those  who  require  some  stimulant 
of  sentiment  expressed  in  definite  words  read  the 
letters  of  Mendelssohn ; they  will  find  there  all  pos- 
sible brightness,  daintiness  and  sweetness.  Then, 
if  they  desire  something  with  a fiercer  “ tang  *’  and 
a more  sardonic  humor,  let  them  read  Berlioz’s  aut- 
obiography and  memoirs.  Do  they  desire  a drama? 
The  life  of  Mozart  or  of  Schubert  will  furnish  it. 
Is  a love  story  necessary  ? The  story  of  Robert 
and  Clara  Schumann  is  as  full  of  true  romance  as 
the  story  of  Abelard  and  Heloise,  or  of  Petrarch 
and  his  Laura.  If  a tragedy  is  needed,  the  lives  of 
Stradella,  or  of  Wm.  Friedemann  Bach  have  some 
of  the  elements.  There  is  sufficient  fact  in  the  lives 
and  letters  of  most  of  the  musical  composers,  to  do 
away  with  the  necessity  of  intertwining  fiction  with 
musical  literature  at  all.  But  even  in  becoming 
familiar  with  the  more  dramatic  facts  of  musical  his- 
tory the  student  must  beware  that  they  do  not  usurp 
the  place  in  his  mind  which  actual  music  should 
occupy. 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  COM- 
POSITION. 


Few  persons,  outside  of  practical  musicians,  have 
even  the  remotest  idea  of  how  composers  work  at 
their  musical  creations.  There  was  a painting,  com- 
pleted only  a few  years  ago,  which  was  entitled, 
“Beethoven  Composing,”  wherein  the  great  master 
was  represented  with  his  eyes  rolled  up  to  heaven, 
and  two  fingers  resting  on  the  keyboard  of  a piano! 

The  painter  must  have  imagined  that  a composer 
picked  his  melodies  and  harmonies  out  by  means  of 
the  keys  of  the  instrument.  In  reality,  the  composer 
works  at  a desk  or  table,  exactly  as  if  he  were  writ- 
ing a letter,  and  to  some  who  have  composed  very 
much,  the  fluency  of  writing  (after  the  idea  has  once 
been  formulated  in  the  mind)  is  as  absolute  in  the  one 
case  as  in  the  other. 

Schubert,  for  example,  wrote  songs  as  rapidly  as 
his  pen  could  fly.  He  would  arise  from  his  bed  at 
night,  if  suddenly  seized  by  a musical  thought,  and 
immediately  write  it  down  in  full,  after  which  he 
(247) 


248 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


would  return  to  his  slumbers.  Once  in  such  a case, 
he  seized  the  ink  bottle,  instead  of  the  sand  with 
which  he  intended  to  dry  his  hasty  writing,  and 
poured  the  entire  contents  over  the  manuscript.  But 
the  best  proof  of  the  true  composer  writing  without 
the  presence  of  the  musical  instrument  is  found  in 
Schubert’s  composing  “Hark!  Hark  the  Lark”  on 
the  back  of  a bill  of  fare,  in  a Viennese  restaurant, 
far  from  any  piano.  Schubert  very  rarely  changed 
anything  in  his  manuscript  after  it  was  once  com- 
pleted, almost  the  only  exception  being  his  ninth 
symphony  (C  major)  in  which  there  are  some  won- 
derfully beautiful  interpolations.  Beethoven  on  the 
other  hand  made  constant  changes  up  to  the  moment 
of  printing, — and  even  after.  Beethoven,  instead  of 
picking  out  his  melodies  with  two  fingers  as  repre- 
sented in  the  painting  mentioned  above,  really  did 
the  greater  part  of  his  composition  in  the  open  air, 
jotting  down  each  musical  thought  in  a memorandum 
book,  whenever  it  came  to  him,  and  it  was  no  un- 
usual sight  to  see  him  stop  in  the  midst  of  a street 
in  Vienna,  and  write  some  phrase  which  had  just  oc- 
curred to  him,  while  the  larger  part  of  the  ninth  sym- 
phony was  written  in  the  branches  of  a tree  which 
still  stands  at  Schonbrunn,  just  outside  of  Vienna. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  contributions  to  musical 
literature  is  the  work  by  hiottebohm,  in  which  the 


THE  TEC  UNIQUE  OF  COMrOlSITION.  249 


phrases  contained  in  these  menioranduni-l)Ooks  have 
been  collected,  and  it  is  a usefid  task  for  the  musical 
student  to  compare  the  original  rough  drafts,  with 
the  finished  compositions  as  we  know  them,  for  it 
thoroughly  inculcates  the  lesson  that  genius  has  an 
infinite  capacity  for  taking  pains. 

An  orchestral  score  is  not  usually  composed  spon- 
taneously but  is  built  UD  Diecemeal.  The  composer 
generally  sketches  out  the  string  parts,  which  are  the 
back-bone  of  the  modern  orchestral  works,  jotting 
down  such  passages  as  he  knows  are  to  be  wholly 
brass  or  wood-wind,  in  their  appropriate  places.  Now 
he  adds  other  instrumental  touches  along  this  musical 
skeleton  until  it  begins  to  assume  its  perfect  shape. 
This  is  the  general  procedure  although  there  are  ex- 
ceptions. AYhen  Mendelssohn  visited  the  Isle  of 
Staffa  in  the  outer  Hebrides,  he  was  so  impressed 
by  the  wonderful  Fingal’s  Cave,  that  he  at  once 
jotted  down  twenty  measures  in  full  orchestral  score, 
and  sent  them  to  his  sister  Fanny  as  the  best  expla- 
nation of  how  the  island  impressed  him.  These 
measures  afterwards  became  the  chief  theme  of  the 
“Hebrides,”  or  “Fingal’s  Cave”  overture.  After 
this  he  more  than  once  displayed  his  mastery  of  the 
techique  of  composition,  by  writing  entire  orchestral 
scores  complete  at  once,  filling  in  each  measure  as  he 
went  along.  But  nothing  is  gained  by  this,  and  it 


250 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


was  mere  display  to  compose  in  this  manner.  As 
regards  the  musical  handwriting  of  some  of  the  com- 
posers,  we  can  add  that  Beethoven  wrote  an  abomin- 
able scrawl,  almost  illegible  ; Mozart  wrote  a dainty, 
but  almost  microscopic  set  of  notes,  and  Wagner  was 
probably  the  finest  and  most  perfect  writer  of  them 
all,  his  manuscript  being  as  clear  as  copperplate.  It 
would  make  a very  interesting  addition  to  musical 
literature,  if  some  one  would  write  an  essay  upon  the 
“Musical  handwriting  of  the  great  Composers”  and 
give  specimens  of  each. 


AN  OLD  MUSICAL  DIC- 
TIONARY. 


The  musical  nomenclature  of  our  language  is  un- 
doubtedly in  a rather  hazy  condition,  but  it  is  a mis- 
take to  suppose  that  our  forefathers  were  better  off 
in  this  matter  than  we  are.  The  Italian  terms  which 
have  come  into  use  in  all  civilized  countries  began 
with  the  rise  of  opera,  and  indeed,  before  the  year 
1590  there  seemed  but  little  need  of  any  signs  of 
expression  whatever,  for  the  music  of  the  old  contra- 
puntists had  but  a minimum  of  expression.  The 
writer  of  this  article  has  recently  come  into  possess- 
ion of  a book  of  musical  definitions  which  is  of  espec- 
ial interest  as  being  the  first  published  in  the  English 
language.  It  is  entitled  “A  Short  Explication  of 
such  foreign  words  as  are  made  use  of  in  Musick 
Books,”  and  states  its  purpose  most  quaintly  in  its 
preface.  “As  Italian  and  other  foreign  Musick  is 
frequently  made  use  of  here  in  England,  and  as  our 
Masters  have  adopted  most  of  the  same  Words  and 
Terms  in  their  Musick  and  Compositions,  as  the 


252 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Italians  and  others  do  in  theirs,  it  is  humbly  presumed 
that  a short  Explication  thereof  will  be  very  accep- 
table to  all  those  who  stand  in  need  of  such  a Help. 
This  not  being  intended  for  the  use  of  Masters  but 
only  for  such  Gentlemen  and  Ladies  who  being  Lov- 
ers of  Musick,  nevertheless  may  possibly  be  ignorant 
of  the  true  Signification  of  many  of  the  said  Terms, 
the  understanding  of  which  is  very  necessary, 
because  a great  Part  of  the  Beauty  and  Agreeable- 
ness of  Musick  depends  upon  a right  and  proper 
Method  and  Manner  of  performing  it ; and  nothing  of 
this  Kind  having  yet  ajpjpeared  in  our  Language  is 
the  Keason  that  the  following  Explication,  which  at 
first  was  drawn  up  only  for  Private  Use,  is  now  made 
Publick.” 

The  little  work,  which  belongs  to  the  earliest  part 
of  the  last  century,  proves  how  the  Italian  terms  had 
spread  along  with  the  Italian  music,  and  also  shows 
that  they  were  not  always  perfectly  understood. 

Here  are  a few  musical  definitions  as  accepted  by 
our  forefathers  in  1720.  “Adagio,  by  which  is  sig- 
nified the  slowest  movement  in  Musick,  especially  if 
the  word  be  repeated  twice  over  as  ad  agio- ad  agio.” 

I doubt  if  the  world  would  be  quite  satisfied  with 
the  definition  of  the  much  disputed  term — Andante, — 
“Andante,  this  Word  has  Eespect  chiefly  to  the 
Thorough  Bass,  and  signifies  that  in  playing,  the 


AN  OLD  MUSICAL  DICTIONARY.  253 

Time  must  be  kept  very  just  and  exact,  and  each 
Note  made  very  equal  and  cUstinct  the  one  from  the 
other.” 

Some  of  the  definitions  are  exactly  the  reverse  of 
what  would  hold  true  of  the  words  in  question  today, 
as  for  example,  “Assai,  this  word  is  always  joyned 
with  some  other  AVord,  to  lessen  or  weaken  the 
Strength,  or  Signification  of  the  AA^ords,  it  is  joyned 
with,  as  ADAGIO,  GRAVE  01*  LARGO,  wliicli  do  all  three 
denote  a slow  Movement,  it  signifies  that  the  Musick 
must  not  be  performed  so  slow  as  each  of  those 
AA^ords  would. require  if  alone.” 

Arpeggio  is  given  the  quaint  spelling  of  “Harpeg- 
gio”  in  this  little  book,  and  PP  is  defined  as  meaning 
Piu  Piano,  while  PPP  is  set  down  as  Pianissimo,  and 
is  defined  as  “Extream  soft  or  low.”  The  rule  is  also 
laid  down  that  to  repeat  any  word  twice  is  to  double 
its  strength,  and  that  therefore  piano-piano  is  twice 
as  soft  as  simply  piano,  and  forte-forte  twice  as 
loud  as  a simple  forte.  But  the  climax  of  lioldness 
of  definition  is  reached  when  voce  is  interpreted  to 
mean  “any  noise  or  sound,”  although  the  editor  sub- 
sequently confesses  it  to  apply  more  generally  in  mu- 
sic “to  a Humane  Voice  !” 

But  most  particularly  the  little  work  is  useful  in 
explaining  the  dances  of  that  epoch,  which  have  been 
preserved  to  the  modern  player  of  piano  through  the 


254 


THE  BEALM  OF  3WSIC. 


Suites  of  Bach  and  of  Handel.  It  may  l)e  borne  in 
mind  that  at  this  early  epoch,  the  dances  which  form 
the  old  Suite  were  in  his^h  favor  in  Enoland  and  that 
therefor  the  volume  is  at  least  an  authority  upon  the 
usage  of  that  country  in  their  interpretation.  We 
find,  among  others,  the  following  definitions: 

^‘Allemanda,  is  the  Name  of  a certain  Air  or  Tune,  always 
in  common  Time,  and  in  two  Parts  or  Strains,  each  Part 
played  twice  over. 

“CiACONA,  a Chacoon,  a particular  Kind  of  Air  always  in 
Triple  Time,  containing  great  Y ariety  of  Humor,  contrived  to 
a Bass  of  eight  Bars,  and  these  played  several  times  over ; 
but  not  so  much  confined  as  is  the  Bass  of  a Ground,  but  is 
allowed  to  vary  every  Time  to  humor  the  Treble,  and  some- 
times to  imitate  it.  These  Airs  are  commonly  played  in  a 
brisk  and  lively  manner. 

“Galliarda,  the  Name  of  an  Ancient  Dance,  or  Tune  belong- 
ing thereunto,  commonly  in  Triple  Time,  of  a brisk,  lively 
Humour,  somewhat  like  a Jig. 

‘Havotta,  a Gavot,  an  Air  of  a brisk,  lively  Nature,  al- 
ways in  Common  Time,  divided  in  two  Parts,  each  to  be 
played  twice  over,  the  first  Part  commonly  in  four  or  eight 
Bars,  and  the  second  Part  in  Four,  Eight,  Twelve  or  Sixteen 
Bars,  or  more. 

‘‘Giga,  gicque,  or  gigue,  is  a Jig,  which  is  a Dance  or  Air, 
very  well  known,  of  which  some  are  to  be  played  slow  and 
others  brisk  and  lively,  and  always  in  Triple  Time,  or  one 
Kind  or  other. 


AN  OLD  MUSICAL  DICTIONAIIY. 


2f)i) 


“Loure  is  the  name  of  a French  Dance  or  tlie  Time  there- 
unto belong'ing,  always  in  Triple  Time,  and  the  Movement,  or 
Time,  very  slow  and  grave. 

“Passacaglio,  or  passacaille,  is  a kind  of  Air,  somewhat 
like  a Chacoone,  but  of  a more  slow  and  graver  Movement. 

“Sarabande,  a Saraband,  a kind  of  Air  always  in  Triple 
Time,  and  commonly  played  very  grave  and  serious.  N.  B. 
— A Saraband  and  Minuet  are  very  much  alike,  in  several 
respects,  excepting  the  different  time  or  Movement  they  are 
played  in.  A Minuet  and  a Passepied,  differ  also  in  the  same 
Manner” 

These  definitions  of  the  old  dance  forms  are  cer- 
tainly interesting  in  their  quaintness,  and  they  cor- 
roborate the  statements  of  the  ancient  Mattheson  in 
his  work. — “Der  Yollkommene  Kapellmeister.” 

The  Classical  forms  of  composition  were  not  so 
well  known  in  England  at  this  time  as  the  dances, 
and  it  is  comical  to  find  our  dictionary-maker  put  to 
various  make-shifts  when  defining  the  forms,  which  it 
is  evident,  he  himself  but  faintly  understood.  The 
word  “Fhigue”  was  very  imperfectly  understood  in 
England,  and  was  often  confounded  with  Canon,  in 
the  last  century.  In  another  book  in  the  possession 
of  the  writer,  and  dated  1731,  the  word  is  defined  as 
meaning  “a  composition  wherein  one  part  imitates 
the  other,”  which,  of  course,  is  not  at  all  applicable 
to  the  episodical  part  of  a fugue ; but  our  present 


256 


THE  BEALM  OF  3IUSIG. 


author  is  not  willing  to  commit  himself  on  a doubtful 
point,  and  sits  on  the  non-committal  fence  as  follows  : 

“Fucha,  aFuge;  which  is  a particular  Way  or 
Manner,  according  to  which  someMusick  is  composed, 
and  of  which  there  are  several  Sorts” — a definition  in 
which  not  all  the  resources  of  modern  commentators 
can  prove  him  in  the  wrong.  He  adopts  very  much 
the  same  safe  plan  in  dealing  with  the  delicate  matter 
of  Sonata,  for  on  this  subject  he  remarks,  “suoisrATA, 
or  SONATA,  is  the  Name  of  certain  Pieces  of  Instru- 
mental Musick,  which  being  very  common,  and  well 
known,  needs  no  particular  Description  italics 

are  our  own) . 

It  is  more  interesting  and  instructive  to  seek  the 
definitions  of  terms  which  have  altered  in  their  sig- 
nificance since  the  early  part  of  the  last  century. 
In  explaining  such»terms  as  “Symphony,”  and  “Can- 
tata,” the  compiler  is  moderately  correct  and  am- 
ple. In  reading  the  following  definitions  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  Symphony  only  became  a 
fixed  form,  an  orchestral  sonata,  after  1750,  and 
Haydn,  its  founder,  had  not  been  born  when  this  lit- 
tle volume  was  made. 

“Symphonia,  or  simphoxia,  a Symphony;  by  which  is  to 
be  understood  Airs  in  Two,  Three  or  Four  Parts,  for  In- 
struments of  any  Kind;  or  the  Instrumental  Parts  of  Songs, 
Motets,  Operas,  or  Concerts  are  so  called. 


AN  OLD  MUSICAL  DICTION ABY. 


257 


“Cantata  is  a Piece  of  Yocal  Musick,  for  one,  two,  three 
or  more  Voices,  and  sometimes  with  one  or  more  Instruments 
of  Musick,  of  any  Sort  or  Kind  ; composed  after  the  manner 
of  Operas,  consisting  of  Grave  Parts  and  Airs  intermixed  one 
with  another. 

“Concerto,  a Consort,  or  a Piece  of  Musick  of  several 
Parts,  for  a Consort.’^ 

With  one  more  glance  at  the  old  dictionary  of 
Musick,  we  close  the  book ; it  is  interesting  to  see 
what  changes  have  come  over  the  instruments  of 
music  in  nearly  two  centuries.  The  Clarinette  did 
not  exist  in  good  enough  shape  to  be  reckoned  with 
the  orchestral  instruments.  The  king  of  the  wood- 
wind was  to  wait  nearly  three  quarters  of  a century 
more,  before  Mozart  should  discover  its  beauty  and 
introduce  it  into  his  E flat  Symphony.  We  find  no 
mention  of  it  in  the  book,  but  the  following  instru- 
ments are  described  : 

“Alto  Viola,  a small  Tenor  Viol. 

“Alto  Violino,  a small  Tenor  Violin. 

“Arcileuto,  an  Arch  Lute,  or  very  long  and  large  Lute, 
differing  but  little  from  the  Theorbo  Lute,  and  is  used  by  the 
Italians  for  playing  Thorough  Bass. 

“CoRNETTO,  a Cornet,  which  is  an  Instrument  of  Musick 
now  out  of  use,  somewhat  like  a Hoboy.” 

(This  definition  is  important,  as  there  has  been 


258 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


some  doubt  as  to  what  kind  of  instrument  was  in- 
tended by  the  Cornetto  marked  in  the  old  Scores.) 

“DuLCiNO,a  small  Bassoon. 

“Fagotto,  (a  Bassoon)  is  a Double,  or  large  Bass  Curtail. 

“Flauto  Traverso,  is  a German  Flute. 

“Flute  a beg,  is  a common  Flute.” 

(The  above  two  definitions  are  also  important  as 
showing  that  the  flute  ordinarily  used  in  England  at 
this  time  was  the  straight  flute,  sometimes  called 
Flute  a Bee,  and  sometimes  the  Eecorders.) 

“ Guitare,  a Guittar,  a musical  Instrument  now^  out  of 
Dse  with  us. 

“Hautboy,  a Hoboy  or  Hautboy,  an  Instrument  of  Musick 
very  common  and  therefor  well  known. 

“PiFFARO,  is  an  instrument  somewhat  like  a Hautboy. 

“PiFFERo,  is  a small  Flute  or  Flagelet. 

“Quart  Fagotta,  a small  Bassoon. 

“Trombone,  a very  large  or  Bass  Trumpet,  though  more 
properly  a Sackbut.” 

There  are  many  other  instruments  described,  but 
enough  has  been  cited  to  show  the  changes  in  our 
orchestra.  The  Timpani  are  described  as  “ often 
used  in  Consort  as  Bass  to  a Trumpet,”  the  Violas 
are  described  as  having  frets  like  a guitar  and  are 


AjV  old  musical  dictionary. 


259 


classified  as  viola  tenore,  viola  basso,  violetta,  viola 
bastardo,  viola  d’  amour  and  viol  di  gamba  and  the 
lower  stringed  instruments  seem  also  to  rejoice  in  a 
multiplicity  of  names.  The  piano  was  not  known 
in  England  at  this  time,  although  Christofori  had 
invented  it  a few  years  before,  and  is  therefore  not 
mentioned. 


COMPOSERS’  MANU- 
SCRIPTS. 


It  is  a mistake  to  suppose  that  all  the  works  of 
the  great  composers  are  in  print.  There  are  some 
works  of  Mozart,  of  Schubert,  and  of  Mendelssohn, 
which  are  held  by  collectors  merely  for  their  auto- 
graphic value,  and  which  it  has  not  been  deemed 
worth  while  to  publish.  Breitkopf  and  Hartel  have 
recently  been  publishing  the  few  remaining  manu- 
scripts of  Beethoven,  but  it  is  a question  whether  the 
posthumous  works  thus  ofiven  to  the  world  were 
worth  the  trouble.  To  preserve  the  noddings  of  the 
various  musical  Homers  is  surely  an  unthankful  task. 
Occasionally,  however,  one  finds  a posthumous  mas- 
terpiece. This  is  chiefly  the  case  with  the  works  of 
Schuheil  and  Bach.  IVith  Schubert,  poverty  was  the 
cause  of  the  occasional  disappearance  of  a great  opus. 
The  rescue  of  the  great  Ninth  Symphony,  in  C,  from 
oblivion,  by  Schumann,  is  probably  familiar  to  most 
of  our  readers.  The  finding  of  an  opera  in  a mu- 
tilated state,  the  servant  in  the  house  where  Schubert 
C260) 


COMPOSEBS'  3IANUSCBIPTS.  2C)1 

had  pawned  it  having  lit  the  fire  each  morning  with 
a page  of  immortal  music,  is  another  instance.  The 
fact  that  the  lieautiful  “Unfinished  Symphony”  lay 
unknown  to  the  w’orld  for  nearly  thirty  years  after 
Schubert’s  death  is  another  proof  of  the  dire  effects 
of  the  composer’s  poverty,  and  the  lack  of  apprecia- 
tion which  existed  even  after  his  death.  Now, 
thanks  to  the  rich  Koumanian,  Nicolas  Dumba,  the 
posthumous  works  of  the  great  composer  are  pretty 
well  unearthed,  although  search  is  still  going  on  for  a 
mysterious  tenth  symphony  which  seems  to  be 
alluded  to  in  one  of  the  letters  of  Schubert. 

With  Bach  the  almost  irreparable  loss  was  caused 
by  the  dissipation  of  his  eldest  son,  Wilhelm 
Friedemann  Bach.  When  John  Sebastian  Bach 
died,  in  1750,  he  divided  his  manuscripts  between 
his  two  eldest  sons,  Wilhelm  Friedemann,  and  Karl 
Philipp  Emanuel  Bach.  The  latter  felt  the  value  of 
the  legacy,  caused  copies  to  be  made,  and  catalogued 
his  possession  in  such  a manner  that  no  part  of  it 
was  lost  to  posterity.  Just  the  opposite  was  the  case 
with  Wilhelm  Friedemann;  wherever  an  innkeeper 
would  allow  credit  on  account  of  a composition  left 
in  pawn,  there  remained  a Bach  work,  and  these 
were  placed  in  just  the  channels  to  disappear  or  to  be 
destroyed.  The  loss  of  many  of  the  works  of  Bach 
must  be  ascribed  to  the  dissolute  habits  of  the  un- 
worthy son  of  a worthy  sire. 


FATAL  MUSICAL  MASTER- 
PIECES. 


There  are,  in  the  musical  repertoire,  a few  com- 
positions which  have  become  famous  under  false 
pretenses,  that  is,  they  have  been  attributed  to  com- 
posers who  are  quite  innocent  of  them.  This  is  not 
an  error  of  recent  growth  ; the  hymns  which  are  as- 
cribed to  Martin  Luther,  for  example,  are  his  only 
so  far  as  the  words  are  concerned,  and  even  the  tune 
of  “Ein  Feste  Burg”  is  now  generally  conceded  to 
have  been  the  work  of  Franc.  The  beautiful  anthem, 
“Lord,  for  Thy  tender  mercies’  sake,”  which  is  pub- 
lished with  the  name  of  Kobert  Farrant,  is  probably 
a composition  of  the  early  English  contrapuntist, 
Tallis.  The  beautiful  song,  “Adieu,”  which  appears 
in  the  Schubert- Albums,  is  not  a composition  of  that 
composer,  or  at  least,  it  was  not  acknowledged  by 
him  in  his  life-time.  Beethoven’s  “Farewell  to  the 
Piano”  was  not  his  adieu  to  anything  of  the  sort,  for 
his  largest  piano  sonatas  w^ere  wudtten  after  its  ap- 
( 262  ) 


FATAL  MUSICAL  MASTEllFIEGES. 


263 


pearance.  Many  of  these  errors  are  to  be  laid  at  the 
door  of  the  publishers,  who  are  probably  not  aware 
of  how  much  misplaced  enthusiasm,  or  gush,  they 
are  responsible  for,  yet  the  true  stories  of  many  of 
the  compositions  of  the  masters  are  more  pathetic  and 
dramatic  than  the  publisher’s  tales  can  ever  become. 

Many  musicians  and  composers  have  died  young. 
This  fact  has  resulted  at  times  from  irregularity  of 
life  and  habits,  at  times  also  from  the  severity  of  the 
struggle  with  the  wolf  at  the  door.  These  unfortu- 
nate  victims  of  the  frenzy  of  genius  seem  to  burn 
themselves  out  before  they  reach  their  prime.  “The 
fatal  thirties”  has  come  to  be  a familiar  expression 
among  musical  historians,  so  many  composers  have 
died  between  their  thirtieth  and  fortieth  years.  Per- 
golesi  was  the  youngest  of  martyrs  among  the  mas- 
ters, dying  at  twenty-six  years  of  age.  Schubert 
was  not  much  older,  however,  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  which  occurred  at  thirty-one.  Mozart  was 
thirty-five  years  old  when  he  died ; Mendelssohn 
lived  to  thirty-eight  only  ; Purcell,  the  greatest  gen- 
ius that  England  ever  produced  in  the  art  of  music, 
died  at  thirty-seven ; the  list  might  be  extended 
indefinitely.  It  seems,  however,  that  when  this 
dangerous  age  is  past  the  composer  has  a good  chance 
of  longevity.  Possibly  this  is  because  the  world 
begins  to  recognize  the  work  of  the  veteran  and  his 


264 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


trials  become  fewer  and  less  severe.  Cherubini  lived 
to  eighty-two ; Handel  to  seventy-four ; Gluck  to 
seventy-three  ; Haydn  died  at  seventy-seven  ; Kos- 
sini  at  seventy-four ; and  an  equally  long  list  of 
septagenarians  and  octogenarians  might  readily  be 
compiled  from  the  musical  annals. 

Often  some  special  work  was  the  direct  cause  of 
the  death  of  some  great  composer.  Thus  Mozart’s 
work  on  the  Requiem,  the  superstitions  it  caused  to 
arise  in  him,  and  the  funereal  thoughts  consequent 
upon  it,  were  the  chief  causes  of  his  death.  “Eli- 
jah” is  said  to  have  killed  Mendelssohn.  Haydn  said 
on  his  death-bed,  “The  ‘Seasons’  gave  me  the  linish- 
ing  stroke.”  “Zampa”  was  the  cause  of  the  early 
decease  of  Herold,  or  at  least  hastened  his  death, 
and  “Carmen,”  caused  Bizet,  the  most  promising 
composer  of  the  French  school,  to  die  at  thirty-seven 
years  of  age.  It  is  a melancholy  list  and  one  which 
proves  that  art  is  a severe  mistress.  The  world  can- 
not help  the  composer  as  regards  the  dire  results 
which  sometimes  follow  upon  the  extreme  tension  of 
creation,  but  at  least  something  can  be  done,  as  in 
France,  to  secure  to  him  all  the  possible  benefits  of 
his  works,  so  that  popular  composers  such  as  Mozart, 
Schubert,  Lortzing,  and  others  were  in  their  time, 
need  not  at  present  have  povert}'  to  bear  in  addition 
to  their  death-dealing  heritage  of  genius. 


HISTORY  IN  SONG-. 


Few  readers  are  aware  how  much  of  history  has 
been  preserved  to  the  world  by  the  agency  of 
music.  The  early  ballads  often  held  the  history  of 
the  northern  nations  intact  through  ages,  where  but 
for  the  association  of  the  recital  with  music  it  would 
certainly  have  perished.  It  is  a noteworthy  fact  that 
the  ancient  Greeks  did  not  possess  the  ballad.  The 
epos  was  the  nearest  approach  to  it  which  we  find  in 
their  musical  and  poetic  forms.  This  fact  was  prob- 
ably the  result  of  their  possession  of  actual  written 
history  and  of  the  drama  in  its  perfection.  Butin 
the  north,  where  these  lofty  modes  of  recording  past 
events  did  not  exist,  there  rose  the  saga,  and  the  his- 
toric songs  of  the  bards,  which  were  practically  bal- 
lads, and  in  England  actually  became  so.  Even 
the  children’s  songs  in  that  country  often  recorded 
ancient  events.  At  times  the  historians  of  middle 
ages  did  not  scruple  to  incorporate  the  tales  which 
had  been  preserved  by  ballads  into  their  ancient 
chronicles.  Some  of  these  ballads  exist  even  to 
this  day,  and  “Sir  Patrick  Spens”  tells  of  a disas- 
(265) 


266 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


trous  voyage  to  the  coast  of  “far  Nor ro way”  which 
cost  many  a Scottish  noble  his  life,  Avhile  the  old 
ballad  of  “The  Jew’s  Daughter”  tells  of  persecution 
and  prejudice  of  days  long  since  gone  by. 

In  Germany,  in  the  times  preceding  the  days  of 
the  Minne-singers  (1150-1318)  there  were  ballads 
of  robbery  and  violence,  which  preserved  the  deeds 
of  many  a robber-baron  for  centuries  after  he  had 
passed  away.  The  music  to  most  of  these  tales  was 
of  the  simplest,  and  was  of  the  strophe  form,  repeat- 
ing itself  as  many  times  as  there  were  stanzas  in  the 
poem.  Often  there  was  attached  to  each  line  or 
verse  a burden  or  refrain.  Sometimes  these  refrains 
carry  us  back  to  the  most  remote  times,  and  many 
phrases  used  as  refrains  in  even  our  modern  music  at 
times  have  an  unexpected  meaning.  “Tol-de-rol,” 
for  example,  which  is  so  often  heard  in  bacchanalian 
choruses,  had  anything  but  a rollicking  significance 
even  when  it  was  first  used,  for  it  was  originally 
“Troly-loly,”  and  w^as  equivalent  to  a sigh,  or  our 
English  word  “Alas.” 

Many  of  the  old  English  songs  have  as  refrain  the 
words  “Hey  Derry  Down.”  There  is  such  a num- 
ber of  songs  with  this  burden  as  chorus  that  they  are 
known  as  the  “Derry  Down  Choruses.”  But  all 
attempts  to  find  the  origin  of  the  words  have  failed, 
and  the  phrase  has  been  traced  to  such  a remote  an- 


HISTOBY  IN  SONG. 


267 


tiquity  that  the  historians  have  concluded  that  the 
words  were  originally  a druidical  incantation.  The 
ballad  in  modern  days  has  been  elaborated  into  a 
great  dramatic  form  by  Schumann  and  Carl  Loewe, 
but  the  simple  and  archaic  ballad  of  ancient  days 
has  a charm  all  its  own,  and  has,  besides,  the  advan- 
tage of  telling  history  in  a most  popular  guise  ; but 
the  old  bards  were  often  too  prone  to  mingle  fancies 
with  their  facts,  and  the  modern  commentator  may 
sometimes  find  difficulty  in  disentangling  the  one 
from  the  other. 

In  times  of  great  national  excitement  or  peril,  the 
true  national  song  is  born,  and  is  of  course,  eminently 
historic.  Every  revolution  and  especially  every 
civil  war  leaves  some  permanent  music  in  its  train. 
Yet  there  is  great  difference  in  the  results  obtained 
in  different  countries.  In  England,  during  the  civil 
war,  for  example,  there  arose  two  distinct  schools  of 
national  song,  as  different  as  the  two  contending 
parties.  One  can  imagine  the  cavalier,  bold,  reck- 
less, insouciant,  snapping  his  fingers  in  the  very 
teeth  of  fate  and  misfortune.  His  songs  were  as 
rollicking  as  himself.  If  he  had  the  worst  of  the 
battles  he  certainly  had  the  best  of  the  singing,  and 
many  of  his  songs  have  been  perpetuated  to  our 
times.  The  round-head  songs,  on  the  contrary, 
have  almost  vanished,  and  this  is  natural  enough. 


268 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


for  they  were  doleful  in  the  extreme.  Few  persons 
ever  have  taken  such  a keen  delight  in  being  miseiv 
able ; almost  every  one  of  these  songs  spoke  of 
death,  of  judgment,  of  the  wrath  of  God.  Yet 
there  was  a terrilic  earnestness  about  them  that  told 
of  the  sturdy  fighter,  the  warrior  who  fought  for  his 
comdctions  and  not  for  his  pay. 

The  songs  of  the  French  Revolution  have,  maii}^ 
of  them,  an  element  of  lightness  and  geniality  which 
becomes  terrible  when  one  thinks  of  the  sanguinary 
scenes  which  they  accompanied.  The  “ Ca  Ira  ” 
which  was  sung  al)out  the  streets  of  Paris  as  the 
people  brandished  spears,  on  which  were  the  heads  of 
the  victims  of  popular  rage,  was  a mere  opera  houffe 
melody;  the  “ Carmagnole,”  which  was  danced 
around  the  scaflfold  where  man}^  an  innocent  woman  or 
child  met  death,  was  as  rollicking  as  any  country 
dance.  Our  own  revolution,  as  our  civil  war,  left 
but  a slight  legacy  of  music  behind  it.  Almost  all 
of  our  so-called  “ national  music ’’comes  from  for- 
eign sources.  “Yankee  Doodle  ” and  “ The  Star- 
Spangled  Banner  ” come  from  rather  vulgar  British 
tunes.  “ The  Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic  ” takes 
its  melody  from  a Methodist  hymn  tune  ; “ Maryland, 
my  Maryland  ” is  a German  folk-song ; and  the  list 
could  be  extended  much  further. 


THE  INTELLECTUALITY 
OF  WAGNER. 


In  an  another  article  we  have  compared  the  intel- 
lectuality of  Wagner’s  music  with  that  of  Bach 
or  Beethoven.  Many  will  imagine  that  this  is  a 
hazardous  comparison,  but  it  is  one  in  which  all 
thinking  musicians  will  eventually  join.  Yet  the 
intellectuality  of  the  three  composers  was  di  fie  rent 
in  each  instance.  It  may  readily  be  conceded  that 
the  best  music  is  that  which  causes  us  to  think  as 
well  as  to  feel,  which  awakens  brain  as  well  as  heart, 
which  requires  some  degree  of  mental  action  as  well 
as  mere  receptivity.  Each  of  the  aboved-named 
composers  fulfills  the  requisite  conditions  for  such 
a combination,  but  each  works  in  a different  manner 
to  bring  this  about.  If  one  examines,  for  example, 
the  fugue  in  E-ffat  major  by  Bach  (“  Well-tempered 
Clavichord,”  Yol.  II,  No.  7 ) one  finds  a work 
which  was  a prime  favorite  with  Mozart,  who  thought 
it  a melodic  gem,  as  well  as  a masterpiece  of  com- 
( 269  ) 


270 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


bination.  But  the  hearer  is  not  permitted  to  give 
himself  up  entirely  to  the  enjoyment  of  mere  tune ; 
he  must  follow  the  subject  (a  rather  long  one)  and 
notice  the  wonderful  strettos  that  are  made  between 
it  and  the  answer,  and  in  the  ingenious  construction 
he  will  find  almost  as  much  enjoyment  as  in  the 
beauty  of  the  themes  themselves. 

If  we  examine  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven’s 
fifth  symphony  we  find  a majesty  of  power  that 
reminds  us  of  how  “ fate  knocks  at  the  door,”  and 
the  soul  responds  to  the  lofty  harmonies  ; but  at  the 
same  time  the  brain  is  awakened  to  follow  the  the- 
matic treatment  which  evolves  almost  the  entire 
movement  from  a four-noted  figure  at  the  beginning 
of  the  first  theme  and  an  equally  simple  one  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  subject. 

This  is  healthy,  normal  music,  appealing  to  heart 
and  brain  simultaneously,  and  no  amount  of  such 
music  can  weaken  either  faculties  or  character. 
But  Wagner  is  not  generally  recognized  as  also 
appealing  to  the  understanding,  yet  he  has  as  much 
of  intellectuality  in  his  works  as  either  of  the  above. 
The  emotional  character  of  his  music  is  so  strong 
that  many  neophites  seek  no  further,  and  say  quite 
honestly,  “ I love  Wagner’s  music,”  even  while  they 
understand  very  little  of  it,  or  at  most  stand  upon 
the  threshold  of  the  palace.  One  must  here,  first  of 


THE  INTELLECTUALITY  OF  WAGNEB.  ^71 


all,  understand  the  guiding  figures  and  their  complex 
employment,  4ind  here  the  brain  will  find  as  much 
employment  as  in  a fugue  or  a sonata.  How  much 
it  means,  for  example,  when  Gurnemanz  asks  Parsifal 
at  the  end  of  the  first  act  of  the  opera  of  that  name, 
just  after  the  close  of  the  service  of  the  Holy  Grail, 
“ Do  you  understand  what  you  have  seen?  ” and  the 
lad  stupidly  shakes  his  head,  to  have  the  motive  of 
‘ ‘ Durch  Mitleid  wissend  ” seethe  up  through  the 
orchestra  ! What  a mental  language  is  spoken  by 
the  ‘ ‘ Name  motive  ” in  the  second  and  third  acts  of 
‘‘Lohengrin!”  Besides  this  intellectuality  one 
must  study  something  of  both  history  and  mythology 
to  fully  appreciate  the  meaning  of  some  of  the  Wag- 
nerian operas,  and  this  is  a good  uniting  of  a mental 
process  Avith  an  emotiofial  one.  But  if  one  has  not 
studied  the  history  of  which  the  scenes  are  unrolled 
before  him  in  a Wagnerian  opera  and  is  therefore 
ignorant  of  some  of  the  causes  which  lead  up  to  them, 
he  can  still  rely  with  absolute  faith  upon  the  accuracy 
of  the  drama,  for  Wagner  was  as  faithful  an  historian 
as  a musician,  and  the  auditor  can,  even  in  an  opera, 
study  history  as  from  an  open  book.  Therefore 
one  may  truly  say  that  if  the  union  of  intellectuality 
with  emotion  be  the  standard  of  the  highest  music, 
Wagner  has  fulfilled  that  requirement  as  absolutely, 
although  the  manner  be  different,  as  Bach  or  Bee- 
thoven. 


RACE  PECULIARITIES 
IN  SINGING. 


It  would  be  an  interesting  contribution  to  musico- 
medical  literature,  to  print  a study  of  the  effects  of 
character  or  race  upon  the  human  voice.  It  has 
been  said  that  “ man  is  the  only  animal  who 
laughs,”  and  it  may  be  added  that  the  human  being 
is  the  only  songster  where  both  sexes  warble  with 
equal  facility,  but  a full  classification  of  the  human 
voice  and  especially  in  its  relation  to  race,  has  not 
yet  been  made.  It  is  a fairly  well-known  fact  that 
certain  kinds  of  voices  prevail  in  certain  countries  ; 
thus  America  produces  many  fine  sopranos  ; Eussia 
is  the  land  of  phenomenal  basses  ; and  the  sweet, 
high  tenor  must  be  sought  chiefly  in  Spain ; but  it 
has  not  yet  been  quite  determined  as  to  whether  cli- 
mate, or  diet  and  general  mode  of  life,  or  actual 
distinction  of  race  is  the  cause  of  this  definite  dis- 
tribution of  vocal  compass  and  timbre.  In  France 
one  finds  a large  number  of  rather  thin-voiced  tenors 
(272  ) 


BACE  PECULIABITIES  IN  SINGING. 


273 


and  these  are  able  to  sing  falsetto  with  phenomenal 
ease.  These  voices  can  even  be  classified  with  local 
precision,  the  finest  and  lightest  ones  generally  corn- 
ing from  the  Department  du  Midi,  while  the  robuster 
but  coarser  ones  generally  have  their  home  in  the  De- 
partment du  Nord. 

The  female  voice  in  America  is  sharper  and  shriller 
than  that  of  the  Englishwoman  or  Frenchwoman, 
and  this  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  conversational 
tone.  One  can  pick  out  the  American  lady  abroad 
with  unerring  accuracy  by  this  trait,  for  her  voice 
will  dominate  the  entire  conversation  as  an  E flat 
clarinet  dominates  a whole  brass  band.  The  Eng- 
lishwoman is  more  usually  a full-toned  alto,  than 
anything  else ; the  Frenchwoman  almost  always  is  a 
mezzo-soprano. 

The  peculiar  style  of  singing  a full  falsetto,  called 
“ jodling,”  which  is  chiefly  found  in  mountain  dis- 
tricts, is  another  instance  of  race  characteristics  in 
vocal  music.  So  perfectly  is  this  singing  done  by  the 
Tyrolese  that,  for  a time,  scientists  held  to  a theory 
that  the  throat  of  the  Tyrolean  might  have  some 
peculiar  formation  of  its  own,  superinduced  by  pe- 
culiar diet  and  the  drinking  of  snow-water. 

Dissection,  and  the  laryngoscope,  however,  proved 
this  to  be  false,  and  since  one  finds  a similar  style 
of  singing  in  the  Norwegian  Mountains,  in  the  En- 


274 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


gadine,  and  other  mountainous  districts,  one  may  in- 
fer that  it  results  from  a mode  of  calling  the  cattle, 
which  is  peculiarly  high,  characteristic,  aud  penetrat- 
ing, and  to  which  these  people  are  accustomed  from 
childhood. 

The  Chinese  singing  is  of  a most  distressing  and 
ear-splitting  character,  and  it  is  impossible  to  describe 
to  those  who  have  not  heard  it,  a series  of  sounds  so 
fatiguing  to  the  throat  or  so  painful  to  the  ear.  One 
would  imagine  that  the  throat  of  the  celestial  was  of 
tougher  fibre  than  that  of  other  mortals,  but  again 
scientific  examination  shows  that  the  seemingly  abnor- 
mal result  comes  from  special  training  rather  than 
from  an  unusual  anatomy.  It  was  almost  equally 
difficult  to  explain  the  acceptance  of  such  hideous 
cacophony,  by  any  human  ears  as  pleasurable,  and 
here  too,  the  theory  found  upholders,  that  the  Chi- 
nese tympanum  or  aural  passage  might  be  of  different 
form  from  those  of  other  races,  but  again  dissection 
proved  this  not  to  be  the  case. 

Peculiar  types  of  voice,  may  be  found,  upon 
investigation,  to  be  rather  the  result  of  ages  of  pe- 
culiar usage  which  finally  produce  traits  that  become 
hereditary,  rather  than  of  climate.  That  diet  pro- 
duces some  marked  characteristics  in  the  voices  of 
different  races  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  and  we  can 
imagine  the  blubber  of  the  Esquimaux,  and  the  grain 


BACE  PECULIABITIES  IN  SINGING. 


275 


food  of  the  Egyptian,  to  produce  different  vocal 
results,  although  scientific  investigation  has  not  yet 
proven  just  what  the  differences  are. 

The  voice  of  the  American  Negro  is  distinguish- 
able from  that  of  the  white  singer,  and  here,  perhaps, 
anatomy  may  afford  a partial  clue,  for  thick  lips  and 
a flat  nose  must  influence  the  tone-production  in  a 
certain  degree,  and  many,  though  by  no  means  all, 
of  our  colored  population  have  these  anatomical 
peculiarities.  Where  these  are  absent  however,  the 
tone  is  more  akin  to  the  ordinary  standard  of  the 
sinmno^  of  other  races,  and  the  writer  recalls  having 
heard  some  finely  formed  male  KaflSrs  sing,  whose 
voices  were  of  full  and  mellow  toned  bass  quality,  and 
could  not  be  distinguished  from  those  of  white 
singers. 

The  loss  of  sight  has  generally  an  appreciable 
effect  on  the  voice,  and  as  a rule  one  will  find  the 
intensely  passionate  character  absent  from  the  sing- 
ing of  the  blind.  In  listening  to  many  blind  soloists 
who  had  received  most  careful  and  thorough  musical 
training,  the  writer  was  impressed  with  the  colorless, 
or  rather  monochromatic  character  of  it  all.  Sweet- 
ness and  pathos  were  there,  and  variations  of  dynamic 
power,  but  there  was  also  a simple  melancholy  and 
dreamy  tranquillity  that  was  inexpressibly  touching 
even  while  so  uniform ^ It  may  be  objected  to  the 


276 


THE  EEALH  OF  MUSIC. 


above,  that  the  observer  may  have  allowed  an  un- 
controllable sympathy  with  the  affliction  of  the  sing- 
ers to  have  caste  a shadow  over  their  musical  work, 
but  at  all  events,  a strong  effort  was  made  to  observe 
closely  and  to  institute  comparison,  and  the  state- 
ment that  there  is  a distinguishable  quality  in  the 
singing  of  the  blind,  may  be  accepted  as  generally 
true. 

It  is  not  intended  to  make  of  this  article  anything 
more  than  a pioneer  statement  in  a field  that  has 
hitherto  been  unexplored. 

In  the  many  relations  which  music  is  unfolding 
towards  general  health,  everything  connected  with  the 
physiology  of  the  art  becomes  not  only  interesting 
but  important.  A classification  of  the  different 
species  of  voices,  together  with  the  countries  and 
races  where  they  are  most  generally  found,  would 
undoubtedly  be  a help  to  the  operatic  manager,  who 
would  then  know  exactly  where  to  steer  his  bark  to 
find  a Soprano  sfogato,  or  a Basso  Prof  undo,  but 
it  would  also  be  something  more  serious  and  valuable 
than  that,  and  might  throw  some  interesting  light  on 
the  origin  of  vocal  music. 


WEAK  TRANSLATIONS. 


Yocal  music  in  America  siifters  in  a very  great 
degree  because  publishers  of  music  pay  little  atten- 
tion to  the  important  matter  of  having  their  editions 
of  foreign  songs  well  translated. 

Not  one  translation  in  a thousand  can  equal  the 
effect  of  any  poem  in  its  original  language,  and  this 
too  when  the  translation  is  made  by  the  most  careful 
of  poets  and  is  unattached  to  music.  AYhen  a poem 
is  attached  to  music  its  words  become  more  than 
ever  important  in  their  arrangement,  and  subtlety 
of  use.  A translation  of  a song  can  only  be  made 
by  one  who  is  poet  and  musician  combined.  The 
carelessness  with  which  pulffishers  take  up  this  branch 
of  their  work,  proves  that  they  know  nothing  of  its 
importance.  Every  word,  in  a dramatic  musical 
phrase,  has  its  appropriate  accent,  carefully  calcu- 
lated by  the  composer.  Let  us  take  but  a few  ex- 
amples : Schumann  has  set  the  line 


“Du  bist  Avie  eiiie  Blume” 
( 277  ) 


278 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


in  which  a gentle'  stress  is  laid  upon  the  last  word 
and  the  phrase  can  only  be  represented  by 

“Thou  art  like  a flower” 

but  the  exigencies  of  metre  step  in  and  we  are  obliged 
to  put  it 

“Thou’rt  like  unto  a flower” 

in  which  an  inflated  style  takes  the  place  of  the 
directness  of  the  German,  because  of  the  interpo- 
lated syllable  contained  in  the  word  ‘‘unto.”  Other 
translators  take  the  other  horn  of  the  dilemma,  and 
transpose  the  line  into 

“A  flower  thou  resemblest” 

which  is  a perfect  example  of  the  carelessness  with 
which  this  species  of  rhymesters  treat  the  composer’s 
intention,  for  now  the  beautiful  stress  laid  upon  the 
word  “flow^er”  is  given  in  a meaningless  manner,  to 
“resemblest.”  Let  the  musical  readers  look  through 
translations  of  dramatic  songs,  such  as  Schumann’s 
“Two  Grenadiers,”  and  really  dramatic  operas,  such 
as  Wagner’s  “Mastersingers,”  or  “Lohengrin,”  or 
Beethoven’s  “Fidelio,”  in  their  English  dress,  and  he 
will  find  hundreds  of  places  where  the  composer’s 
most  beautiful  effects  have  been  sacrificed  to  the  exi- 
gencies of  pouring  the  sparkling  thought  from  one 
language  into  another. 


WEAK  TBANSLA  TIONS. 


279 


In  such  an  arrangement  of  translations,  we  are 
considering  only  the  l)est,  but  even  in  the  very  l)est 
hands  i)erfect  translation  is  generally  an  impossibil- 
ity. We  make  a great  outcry  about  the  sin  of 
transposing  a song  from  its  original  key,  for  we 
rightly  sui)pose  that  the  composer  had  a definite  key 
in  his  mind  when  creating  the  work,  and  that  the 
pitch  was  an  important  part  of  his  intention,  but 
langilage  and  the  position  of  musical  accents  in  their 
relations  to  syllaldes  and  words,  is  far  more  impor- 
tant than  pitch  (or  tessitura)  can  ever  be.  If  we 
accept  translated  makeshifts  they  can  only  be  pro- 
duced 1)}'  the  collaboration  of  musician  and  poet ; 
a Seidl  and  an  Aldrich,  together,  might  translate 
“Parsifal”  but  it  would  still  lose  something,  and  a 
great  deal,  in  the  process.  It  must  l)e  remembered 
also,  that  certain  works  belong  to  the  spirit  of  a lan- 
guage and  country,  and  the  best  translated  “Car- 
men” would  seem  unnecessarily  coarse. 

Of  the  horrors  of  translations  of  the  poorer  class 
we  need  not  speak  at  length ; the  reader  needs  only 
to  study  the  language,  supposed  to  be  English,  of 
the  opera  librettos.  The  writer  of  this  article  has 
a unique  collection  of  ludicrous  errors  made  by  the 
poetasters  in  translation,  in  which  “Buchenhallen” 
(groves  of  beeches)  is  turned  into  “Halls  of  Boohs 
and  “Fern  von  mir  ist  Minne  ! !”  (Love  is  far  from 


280 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


me)  becomes  “Far  away  is  Minnie! T “Oh  bitt’  euch 
liebe  Magdelein”  (I  beg  you,  loved  Maidens)  be- 
comes “I  beg  you  dearest  Magdalene while  Brahms’ 
noble  “Wie  bist  du  meine  Konigin*’  is  metamor- 
phosed into  “How  dost  thou  hire,  my  beauteous 
queen  ?!”  the  translator  evidently  believing  that  the 
title  meant  a sort  of  “How  do  }mu  do?” 

If  the  reader  will  take  the  trouble  to  examine  the 
English  version  of  the  glorious  “Erl  King”  in 
Pauer’s  celebrated  edition  of  Schubert's  songs  ( Aug- 
ener  & Co.,  London)  he  will  find  an  example  of  the 
careless  manner  in  which  many  translations  are  made . 
Xot  only  are  the  phrases  of  music  which  Schubert  in- 
tended for  the  sufiering  child  put  in  the  mouth  of  the 
parent^  (and  ^’^ce  versa,)  but  in  one  stanza  the  Erl 
King’s  daughters  stand  “ in  the  rain,”  while,  in  the 
next  lines,  the  willows  ‘fiance  to  the  moon!  ” a me- 
teorological phenomenon  that  deserves  the  attention 
of  scientists,  as  being  the  most  rapid  change  of  wea- 
ther on  record  I 

But  such  works  should  teach  us  a lesson.  VTe 
have  no  right  thus  to  tamper  with  art  works.  Eveiy 
reputable  publishing  house  should  either  furnish 
worth}"  translations,  or  give  such  songs  as  the  above 
without  any  English  whatever.  A few  more  of  the 
abominable  translations  whose  name  is  already  le- 
gion, and  musicians  will  become  converted  to  the 


WEAK  TRANSLATIONS. 


advisability  of  keeping  all  vocal  masterpieces  in  their 
original  tongue. 


WAGNER  AND  HIS 
ENEMIES. 


Rowbotham’s  recent  absurd  attack  upon  Wagner 
must  fall  by  its  own  weio:ht,  and  we  are  glad  to  see 
that  no  great  efforts  are  being  made  to  reply  to  it. 
Yet  there  is  one  wretchedly  false  statement  which 
may  be  disposed  of  in  a few  lines.  It  is  the  untruth 
that  the  Wagner’s  theories  had  their  origin  in  pique 
and  failure.  Had  the  earlier  operas  succeeded,  the 
later  A^ein  of  composition  would  not  have  been 
evolved,  says  (in  substance),  the  historian.  Let  us 
produce  the  evidence  which  proves  the  falsity  of  this. 
Wagner's  first  great  opera  “Rienzi”  was  built  in 
the  Italian  school,  and  won  a great  success  at  Dres- 
den. Instead  of  following  this  success  up,  Wagner 
composed  a work  in  a totally  different  vein — “Tann- 
hauser” — and  w hen  this  disappointed  his  audiences  he 
was  not  forced  back  into  the  school  in  which  assured 
success  lay  before  him,  but  departed  yet  further  from 
the  accepted  models  by  composing  “Lohengrin.” 
(282) 


WAG  NEB  AND  HIS  ENEMIES. 


283 


That  his  theories  were  close  to  his  heart  and  very  hon- 
est is  shown  still  more  by  the  fact  that  he  composed 
a work  in  honor  of  his  wife’s  birthday,  in  which  he 
celebrated  the  happy  childhood  of  their  son,  in 
Switzerland.  This  piece  was  not  intended  for  the 
world,  it  was  a present  from  a loving  husband  to  a 
devoted  wife, — and  it  is  filled  with  the  Jelt-motiven, 
the  free  modulations,  and  the  deviations  from  form, 
which  characterize  all  Wagner’s  later  works.  The 
Siegfried-Idylle  is  the  surest  answer  to  those  critics 
who  think  that  Wagner’s  reforms  were  not  entirely 
honest,  and  wholly  believed  in  by  their  originator. 

It  is  difficult  to  disassociate  Wagner  as  a man 
from  Wagner  as  an  artist,  yet  there  was  a great 
difference  between  the  two.  The  former  was  illiberal, 
arbitrary,  unjust  and  ineffably  conceited ; the  latter 
was  profound,  consistent,  honest,  and  lofty  in  motive. 
Wagner’s  sneers  at  Berlioz,  at  Brahms,  and  even 
at  his  friend  Liszt  prove  the  first  of  these  characters, 
but  fortunately  for  his  memory,  the  other  side  is 
equally  susceptible  of  proof.  When  art  was  con- 
cerned Wagner  permitted  neither  trifling  nor  com- 
promise. Thus  when  in  1861  “Tannhauser”  was 
produced  at  Paris  ordre^''  and  Napoleon  III  had 
the  opera  mounted  on  a scale  of  unparalleled  magnifi- 
cence, Wagner  persistently  refused  to  add  a ballet  to 
the  work  although  he  knew  that  his  refusal  meant  a 


284 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


fiasco  for  the  opera.  More  than  this  ; as  the  overture 
did  not  represent  his  theories  justly,  he  altered  this 
(the  most  popular  part  of  the  work)  into  a prelude, 
causing  it  to  lead  directly  into  the  opera,  and  sacrific- 
ing thereby  the  very  effective  passage  of  trombones 
and  strings  (the  Pilgrim’s  Chorus ) because  it  seemed 
out  of  line  with  his  artistic  views.  Grandest  of  all, 
when  he  grew  into  the  construction  of  his  Trilogy  ^ 
he  saw  that  it  was  to  be  a life  work  such  as  few  men 
could  hope  to  complete,  and  when  completed  it  was 
entirely  improbable  that  any  one  would  ever  publish 
or  perform  it,  yet  the  voice  of  art  did  not  call  in 
vain,  and  his  words  to  a friend,  on  this  subject,  are 
the  loftiest  ever  spoken  by  a composer:  “If  I live 

to  end  it  I shall  have  lived  gloriously  ; if  I die  I 
shall  have  died  for  something  beautiful.” 

What  terrific  occasions  those  attempts  at  perform- 
ances of  “Tannhauser”  in  Paris  must  have  been! 
The  Jockey  Club  had  made  up  their  minds  that 
their  pets  of  the  ballet  should  not  be  relegated  to  ob- 
livion even  temporarily  for  the  sake  of  this  obstinate 
composer;  Felicien  David  had  been  hurt  because 
one  of  his  operas  had  been  postponed  to  make  way 
for  the  production  of  this  foreigner,  and  all  his  friends 
organized  a clique  against  the  work ; the  Parisian 
critics  were  against  the  sumptuous  production  as  un- 
just to  native  art.  Never  was  such  a cabal  founded, 


WAGNER  AND  HIS  ENEMIES. 


285 


so  widespread  and  so  virulent.  The  performances 
took  place  amid  the  howls,  hisses  and  whistling  of  an 
excited  mob.  There  were  some  present  who  really 
admired  the  music,  and  a few  who  wished  to  give  the 
foreigner  a fair  hearing ; but  these  were  in  the 
minority,  and  were  in  same  cases  grossly  maltreated. 
Some  twenty  duels  grew  out  of  the  performances, 
and  there  were  fisticuft*  fights  within  the  opera  house. 
At  last  Napoleon,  and  Princess  Metternich  who 
had  induced  the  emperor  to  undertake  the  perform- 
ances, gave  up  the  fight  and  what  promised  to  be  the 
greatest  performance  of  “Tannhauser”  that  the  world 
had  ever  seen  came  to  an  untimely  end  and  was  not 
attempted  again  in  the  French  metropolis. 

Paris  has  not  infrequently  been  the  abode  of  artis- 
tic rioting  or  of  rioting  about  artistic  matters. 
When  the  Gluck  and  Piccini  factions  existed  in 
the  last  century,  lampoon  and  satire  were  not  the 
only  weapons  with  which  the  partizans  fought. 
Many  duels  and  street  brawls  occurred.  It  was  the 
expiring  agony  of  the  old  Italian  opera,  the  sdiool 
which  was  vox  et  prceterea  nil.,  which  placed  musie 
above  poetry,  and  cared  nothing  for  the  dramatic 
unities.  The  final  struggle  came  when  ‘Tphigenia 
in  Taurus”  was  set  both  by  Gluck  and  Piccini.  The 
victory  was  overwhelmingly  with  the  dramatic  school 
as  represented  by  the  former,  and  then  2i  jeu  d' esprit 


286 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


finished  the  matter,  for  the  prima  donna  who  appeared 
in  Piccini’s  version  indulged  too  freely  on  the 
evening  of  the  preformance , and  a wit  cried  out : 
“This  is  not  Iphigenia  in  Taurus,  it  is  Iphigenia 
in  liquor !”  and  the  defeat  was  complete.  Musical 
rioting  in  Paris  occurred  only  a few  years  ago  when 
a mob  forbade  the  performance  of  “Lohengrin*’  at 
the  Eden  Theatre.  M.  Lamoureux  told  the  writer  of 
this,  recently:  “It  is  very  singular!  I may  place 

Wagner’s  music  as  much  as  I please  on  my  concert 
programs,  and  the  public  will  even  applaud  it,  but 
the  moment  I give  it  in  costume  and  on  the  stage  it 
becomes  dangerous  ! C^est  drcAeP  from  which  it 
appears  that  musical  mobs  like  all  others,  are  un- 
reasoning monsters. 

Since  that  time  however  “Lohengrin”  has  been 
given  in  the  French  metropolis,  and  the  hatred  which 
once  was  exhibited  against  Wagner,  the  man,  is 
now  disappearing  in  a recognition  of  the  grandeur 
of  the  composer  and  his  works. 


COMPOSERS’  THOUGHTS. 


The  question  frequently  arises  as  to  whether  it  is 
quite  right  to  use  orchestral  arrangements  of  piano 
or  violin  Avorks,  Avhen  so  many  real  orchestral  com- 
positions remain  unheard.  Raff’s  arrangement  of 
Bach’s  Chaconne,  Muller-Berghaus'  arrangement  of 
Liszt’s  Polonaises,  and  many  other  similar  orchestral 
transcriptions,  sin  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  they  are  so 
brilliant  that  they  throw  the  original  work  in  the 
shade.  Yet  we  should  Avish  to  see  this  branch  of  our 
art  pushed  still  further.  Beethoven’s  later  piano 
works  suggest  orchestral  thoughts  at  every  turn,  and 
Ave  believe  that  there  may  yet  arise  some  reverent 
master  who  will  disclose  the  beauties  which  are  but 
half  revealed  in  them,  for  at  present  they  are  like 
ancient  gems,  valuable  and  beautiful  in  their  manner, 
but  which  the  modern  lapidary  may  cut  in  a way 
that  shall  bring  forth  their  latent  fire.  The  Opus 
106 — the  great  sonata  for  piano — Avould  work  grandly 
in  an  orchestral  guise.  The  later  string  quartets, 
which  seem  at  present  to  strive  to  express  thoughts 
( 287  ) 


288 


THE  BEAL 31  OF  AlUSIC. 


too  vast  for  any  four  instruments,  could  be  made 
wonderfully  resplendent.  But  how  the  critics  will 
attack  the  master  who  first  dares  to  attempt  this 
transformation  ! There  are  those  to  whom  a false 
note  by  a recognized  master  is  more  precious  than  the 
best  success  achieved  by  any  one  else. 

It  is  well  known  that  almost  all  of  Beethoven’s 
musical  ideas  came  to  him  in  an  orchestral  guise. 
He  himself  has  confessed  this.  Similarly, every  great 
composer  has  some  distinct  vein  of  musical  imagina- 
tion which  allies  itself  more  or  less  closely  to  some 
musical  instrument  or  instruments.  Schumann’s 
thoughts,  because  of  the  early  part  of  his  musical 
life,  were  almost  always  piano  phrases.  Even  in  his 
symphonies  there  are  many  passages  which  suggest 
the  percussive  style  of  this  instrument,  and  which 
are  very  satishictorily  transcribed  for  it.  Chopin’s 
works  present  the  same  peculiarity,  and  the  orchestral 
part  of  his  two  concertos  is  by  no  means  remarkably 
orchestral,  nor  is  it  perfectly  united  to  the  solo  pas- 
sages. In  his  few  songs  also  (they  are  posthumous 
works)  one  finds  the  voice  attempting  to  do  pretty 
much  what  the  fingers  accomplish  in  his  nocturnes 
and  waltzes.  With  Schubert  everything  was  song ; 
his  chamber  music  sings,  his  piano  works  sing,  and 
even  the  themes  of  his  symphonies  are  generally  song 
themes.  These  are  not  faults  in  one  sense,  but  they 


COMPOSEBS'  THOUGHTS. 


289 


may  serve,  at  times,  as  guides  to  those  who  seek  to 
make  such  transcriptions  or  arrangements  as  have 
l)een  alluded  to  above  and  may  serve  to  palliate  the 
“ crime”  of  such  arrangements. 


OUR  NATIONAL  ANTHEM. 


In  Europe  they  have  about  decided  that  “Hail 
Columbia”  is  the  National  tune  of  America.  When 
Edison  entered  the  Grand  Opera  House  in  Paris 
recently,  the  band  played  this  as  the  most  fitting 
American  air,  and  in  the  French  Exposition  as  well 
as  in  Germany  the  tune  has  been  similarly  honored. 
This  is  quite  as  it  should  be,  for  “Yankee  Doodle” 
(besides  of  being  of  English  origin)  is  not  dignified 
enough  for  a National  anthem.  “America ” is  entirely 
British  in  its  musical  part,  and  the  “Star-spangled 
Banner”  was  at  first  but  an  English  drinking  song. 
The  last-named  melody  went  through  many  odd 
phases ; it  was  a great  favorite  in  England  in  the 
last  century,  and  even  in  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury it  was  so  popular  that  Braham,  the  great  tenor, 
made  it  one  of  the  regular  pieces  of  his  repertoire. 
The  words  were  bombastic  enough^ — they  ran ; 

To  Anacreon  in  Heaven,  where  he  sat  in  full  glee, 

A few  sons  of  Harmony  sent  a petition, 

(290) 


OUB  NATIONAL  ANTHEM. 


291 


That  lie  their  inspirer  and  patron  would  be 
When  this  answer  arrived  from  the  jolly  old  Grecian, 
Voice,  fiddle  and  flute 
No  longer  be  mute. 

I’ll  lend  you  my  name,  and  inspire  you,  to  boot. 

And  besides  I’ll  instruct  you,  like  me  to  entwine. 

The  myrtle  of  Venus,  with  Bacchus’s  vine. 

There  are  six  verses,  in  which  eTove  endeavors  to 
stop  the  impetuous  god,  and  Apollo  and  his  “nine 
fusty  maids,”  stand  up  for  him,  Avhile  Momus  and 
all  the  rest  of  the  mythology  appear.  In  1802  the 
Free  Masons  made  use  of  the  tune  and  changed  it  to 
a charitable  ditty,  in  aid  of  the  Mason’s  Orphan 
Asylum.  The  words  Avere  changed  by  Brother 
Connel  to  apply  to  Hiram  A biff,  the  supposed 
architect  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  then  began 
as  follows  : 

To  old  Hiram  in  Heaven,  where  he  sat  in  full  glee, 

A feAv  brother  Masons  sent  up  a petition 
That  he  their  inspirer  and  patron  would  be. 

To  help  Mason’s  orphans  and  mend  their  condition. 

All  this  took  place  long  Ijefore  Key  had  written 
the  Avords  Avhich  made  the  tune  our  own  also. 

On  the  other  hand  both  the  march  tune  which 
became  the  melody  of  “Hail  Columbia”  and  the 
words  of  the  anthem  are  American  in  origin,  and  it  is 
quite  fitting  that  this  should  be,  for  the  present,  our 


292 


THE  BEALM  OF  3IUSIC. 


National  tune.  Yet  it  is  not  to  be  ranked,  in 
artistic  worth,  with  the  national  tunes  of  England, 
France,  Germany,  or  Austria,  and  the  need  of  the 
hour  is  a great  American  National  Anthem,  which 
shall  be  native  in  both  its  words  and  melody,  and 
which  shall  be  worthy  of  the  vast  and  free  nation  it 
represents. 


MUSICAL  CONDUCTORS. 


Ever  since  the  art  of  music  was  cultivated  among 
men,  it  has  been  found  necessary,  in  all  concerted 
work,  to  give  the  task  of  preserving  the  rhythm  and 
keeping  the  different  performers  in  unity  to  a person 
especially  selected  for  the  duty.  Among  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  the  leader  kept  the  musicians  in  proper 
tempo  by  clapping  his  hands,*  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  by  stamping  with  a heavy  leaden  shoe  which 
was  worn  on  the  right  foot ; among  the  old  Italians, 
by  rapping  with  a stick  against  a music-rack  or  desk  ; 
among  the  moderns,  by  swinging  a baton.  We  do 
not  propose  in  this  article  to  give  an  essay  on  the 
technique  of  conducting,  but  merely  to  notice  a 
few  of  the  historical  facts  connected  with  musical 
leadership.  In  England,  until  the  present  century, 
the  art  of  conducting,  as  we  now  understand  it,  wsls 

* The  Scriptural  allusions  to  “clapping*  of  hands ’’were  in- 
spired by  this  kind  of  conducting. 

(293) 


294 


THE  BEAL3I  OF  MUSIC. 


not  used.  It  was  customary  there,  as  in  Germany, 
for  the  chief  musician,  often  the  composer  of  the 
work,  to  sit  at  a piano  or  organ  with  the  score  before 
him,  and  put  in  a few  chords  or  play  a passage  when 
the  orchestra  were  in  danger  of  going  astray  in  any 
manner ; and  sometimes  he  would  play  the  first 
phrases  of  the  different  numbers  with  the  musicians, 
that  they  might  seize  the  proper  tempo . The  leading 
violinist  often  used  the  stand-rapping  process,  as  in 
Italy.  . Handel  often  conducted  his  works  from  the 
organ,  giving  the  proper  tempi,  and  guiding  the  or- 
chestra by  his  performance  rather  than  in  any  other 
manner.  It  is  a strange  fact  that  few  of  the  great 
composers  have  been  great  conductors.  Beethoven, 
even  before  he  became  deaf,  was  unreliable.  The 
music  often  excited  him  so  that  he  forgot  the  mechan- 
ical part  of  the  duties  of  the  conductor.  Schumann, 
although  he  held  many  prominent  positions  of  this 
class,  was  also  variable;  but  this  was  probably  due 
to  the  mental  disease  which  was  preying  upon  him. 
In  his  later  years,  when  this  malady  had  made  great 
progress,  it  was  noticeable  that  he  always  took  the 
allegro  movements  too  sIoav.  His  mind  was  no  longer 
able  to  follow  at  the  rapid  pace  necessary,  and  he 
became  confused  A\dien  listening  to  any  quick  music. 
His  attitude  at  the  conductor’s  stand  A\^as  peculiar. 
He  seemed  preoccupied,  and  his  lips  Avere  pursed  to- 


MUSICAL  CONDUCTORS. 


295 


getlier  as  if  he  were  whistling  the  themes  softly  to 
liimself.  Mendelssohn,  on  the  contrary,  was  an  ex- 
cellent conductor,  and  seemed  always  aide  to  grasp 
the  composer’s  thought  and  convey  it  to  his  musi- 
cians. 

Schubert  was  very  impracticable  as  a conductor, 
and  this  quality  kept  him  from  ever  attaining  any 
position  of  importance.  It  is  stated  that  he  once 
forfeited  the  chance  of  attaining  a lucrative  post  l)y 
composing  an  aria  for  a favorite  Viennese  prima 
donna,  and  orchestrating  it  so  heavily  that  the  poor 
lady’s  voice  was  scarcely  able  to  make  itself  heard 
above  the  din.  At  the  rehearsal,  when  it  was  evi- 
dent that  the  attempt  was  a failure,  and  the  singer, 
bursting  into  tears,  pleaded  for  the  necessary  altera- 
tions, it  is  said  that  Schubert  refused  point-blank  to 
alter  even  a single  note,  and  left  the  opera-house  in 
great  anger.  It  may  also  be  stated,  en  passant., 
that  Schu1)ert  was  unable  to  perform  the  more  diffi- 
cult of  his  own  piano  music,  and  once,  after  vainly 
essaying  to  interpret  his  Fantasie  (op.  15),  sprang 
up  hastily  from  the  instrument  shouting  that  the  stuff 
was  unperformable  (“Das  Zeug-  mag  der  Teufel 
spielen  ! ”) . 

Many  eminent  conductors  were  able  to  lead  diffi- 
cult compositions  in  early  youth.  Mendelssohn, 

* It  must  be  added,  however,  that  recent  commentators  throw 
some  doubt  upon  this  anecdote. 


296 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIO. 


when  a mere  boy,  was  in  the  habit  of  conducting 
works  which  were  performed  at  his  own  home. 
Schumann,  when  ten  years  of  age,  formed  an  orches- 
tra in  the  little  town  of  Zwickau,  which  he  led,  and 
for  which  he  even  composed  little  concerted  pieces. 
Sir  Michael  Costa  was  sent  by  Zingarelli  (from  Na- 
ples) to  conduct  the  Birmingham  Festival  in  1829'. 
The  committee  were  dismayed  when  they  saw  the 
beardless  youth  who  was  to  lead  the  great  chorus  and 
orchestra ; and  spite  of  his  assurances  that  he  knew 
every  note  of  the  score,  they  declined  even  to  give 
him  a hearing.  Laporte,  of  the  King’s  Theatre, 
Haymarket,  London,  soon  afterward  engaged  him  ; 
but,  on  introducing  the  new  conductor  to  his  musi- 
cians, the  latter  burst  into  laughter,  and  the  next 
day  they  sent  him  some  miniature  razors,  with  a 
satirical  request  tliM  he  should  practice  with  them. 
He  kept  these  for  many  years  as  a souvenir  of  his 
early  conducting.  Wagner  is  said  to  have  had  a 
similar  experience  with  an  orchestra  which  he  led  in 
his  youthful  days.  He  was  to  conduct  a Beethoven 
symphony,  and  came  without  a score,  trusting  to  his 
memory.  The  musicians  smiled  at  what  they  con- 
sidered affectation.  ^Thereupon,  the  young  leader 
offered  to  fill  in  twenty  bars  in  any  portion  of  any 
of  the  instrumental  parts,  and  by  succeeding  in  this 
test  convinced  the  musicians  that  he  had  not  overrated 


MUSICAL  C 0 ND  UC  TOJi S. 


21)7 


his  own  powers.  The  Jirt  of  condncting  from  mem- 
ory has  of  late  become  a very  mncli  practiced  though 
not  very  important  one.  Yon  Billow  has  carried 
this  to  the  very  utmost. 

The  performance  of  even  the  best  of  the  old  or- 
chestras would  seem  rather  slovenly  to  modern  ears, 
for  the  perfection  of  modern  })laying  was  unknown 
even  seventy  live  years  ago.  At  times  a great  orches- 
tra was  collected,  as  upon  the  occasion  of  the  per- 
formance of  Beethoven’s  ninth  symphony  under  the 
composer,  in  which  every  musician  was  a celebrity, 
but  even  here  the  lack  of  rehearsals  prevented  any 
perfection  of  ensemble.  If  the  end  of  the  last  cen- 
tury and  the  beginning  of  this  may  be  called  the 
golden  period  of  composition,  at  least  we  may  aspire 
at  present  to  the  possession  of  an  equally  brilliant 
epoch  of  execution. 

The  conductor  need  not  be  a great,  or  even  a good 
performer  on  any  instrument.  One  of  the  greatest 
of  composers  and  conductors  the  world  ever  has 
seen.  Bichard  Wagner,  was  not  proficient  on  any  in- 
strument. The  conductor  need  not  understand  the 
clarinette  or  oboe,  for  example,  better,  or  as  well  as 
the  clarinettist  or  the  oboist,  but  he  must  understand 
the  effect  intended  to  be  reached  better  than  either  of 
these  ; he  must  be  the  poet  of  the  orchestra,  and 
must  play  on  the  orchestra,  precisely  as  the  organist 


298 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


plays  on  the  organ.  It  is  not  necessary  that  he 
should  be  a composer ; spite  of  the  fact  that  some 
composers  have  been  famous  as  conductors,  the  com- 
poser is  apt  to  become  wedded  to  some  particular 
school  and  to  be  but  a poor  conductor  of  any  other 
genre.  The  greatest  living  conductor,  Hans  Richter, 
determined  to  give  up  composition  when  he  entered 
on  his  career  as  a conductor,  and  without  having  a low 
opinion  of  his  creative  talent,  we  must  hold  the  deci- 
sion to  have  been  a wise  one,  for  the  interpretative 
faculty  would  have  conflicted  with  the  creative. 

The  conductor  of  the  modern  orchestra  has  a 
manifold  task.  First  of  all  comes  the  technical  drill, 
which  is  the  most  wearing  of  all.  The  ruling  of  a 
band  of  sensitive  musicians  is  in  itself  not  an  easy 
matter.  To  repress  an  enthusiastic  cellist  and  cause 
him  to  subordinate  his  phrases  to  a viola  passage 
which  he  considers  of  minor  importance,  or  to  sub- 
due an  over-zealous  trombonist,  is  not  a trifling  thing 
to  do.  But  before  even  this  is  done  the  conductor’s 
work  has  begun,  and  he  has  carefully  studied  the 
score  that  he  may  have  a clear  idea  of  what  he  in- 
tends to  do.  There  is  generally  an  antagonism 
between  the  strict  conductor  and  his  men,  the  former 
desiring  too  much  rehearsal,  the  latter  too  little.  The 
discipline  of  an  orchestra  should  be  as  rigid  as  that 
of  a military  company,  and  the  distinctions  of  rank 


MUSICAL  COKDUCTOBS. 


299 


are  almost  as  fixed ; it  is  a matter  of  infinite  impor- 
tance to  the  nmsician  A\^hether  he  sits  in  the  first  row 
or  the  second,  or  at  the  fifth  desk  or  the  tenth. 

The  ideal  conductor  must  not  only  feel  the  emotion 
of  a work,  hut  he  must  he  aide  to  express  it  to  his 
men,  hy  words  at  rehearsal,  hy  gesture  at  the  con- 
cert. The  heating  of  the  time  is  very  important,  as  an 
indecisive  heat  will  cause  the  attacks  to  he  irregular. 
Many  composers  sin  in  this  respect  and  cannot  con- 
duct their  own  works  with  nearly  as  good  results  as 
are  achieved  hy  the  trained  conductor.  The  signal- 
ing of  the  different  entrances  of  the  instruments  is 
another  task  of  the  conductor ; if  the  kettle  drums 
have  had  fifty-seven  measures  rest,  they  should  count 
them  and  know  exactly  when  they  are  to  resume 
playing,  hut,  as  a matter  of  fact,  they  often  rest  with 
calm  tranquillity  on  the  shoulders  of  the  conductor, 
and  rely  on  him  to  give  them  the  signal  to  play  the 
first  note  of  their  phrase. 

These  are  a few  of  the  chief  duties  of  a modern 
orchestral  conductor ; to  those  who  imagine  that  to 
shake  a stick  rhythmically  over  an  orchestra  is  to 
lead  it,  they  may  seem  exaggerated,  hut  they  are 
rather  under  than  over-stated.  Meanwhile,  when 
one  sees  a gentleman  in  the  rural  districts,  swelling 
with  importance  because  he  is  shaking  the  stick  in 
question,  and  determined  to  get  six  entire  shakes 


300 


THE  EEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


into  each  measure  of  a 6-8  Presto  movement,  or  die, 
we  can  hut  recall  the  term  applied  to  these  ague-con- 
ductors in  Europe  ; they  call  them  “Metronomes  !” 


THE  SIZE  OF  THE  MODERN 
ORCHESTRA. 


It  is  a fact  greatly  to  be  deplored  that,  outside  of 
New  York,  grand  opera  is  generally  presented  in 
American  cities  with  an  orchestral  accompaniment  of 
about  half  the  power  and  musical  force  which  the 
composer  desired,  and  this  is  a serious  affair  in  the 
case  of  Wagner,  for  he  knew  dehnitely  exactly  the 
the  effect  he  desired  to  produce  , and  never  was  led  to 
indulge  in  mere  sensational  devices  with  his  orches- 
tra. Wagner  is,  by  the  ignorant,  credited  with  pil- 
ing Ossa  upon  Pelion  in  the  matter  of  orchestration. 
One  may  exclaim  with  Prince  Hal,  — “Mark  now 
how  plain  a tale  shall  put  you  down.”  When  AYag- 
ner  returned  from  his  banishment  in  Switzerland,  he 
had  practically  all  Germany  at  his  feet.  Liszt  was 
working  for  him  everywhere.  King  Louis  gave  him 
almost  carte  hlanclte  in  the  foundation  of  his  opera 
house  and  his  orchestra,  gifts  of  money  were  pouring 
in  from  all  Germany  and  even  from  foreign  lands. 

(301) 


302 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Under  these  circumstances  what  did  Wagner  do? 
Did  he  instantly  demand  a regiment  of  trombones 
and  a host  of  trumpeters  ? Did  he  at  once  swell  his 
orchestra  to  the  size  of  a small  army  ? Xot  at  all ; 
he  carefully  marked  upon  his  scores,  in  order  that 
later  conductors  might  not  go  astray,  a demand  that 
the  great  operas  composing  the  Trilogy  might  have 
an  orchestra  varying  in  different  parts  from  106  to 
118  men,  and  gave  details  as  to  the  number  to  be 
used  in  each  department.  He  had  careful  1}^  studied 
out  the  orchestral  problem,  and  it  would  have  been 
a mistake  to  increase  or  decrease  the  forces  from  the 
master’s  ideal.  How  different  is  the  picture  presented 
by  that  other  tone  colorist — Berlioz  ! When  he  re- 
ceived a commission  from  the  French  Government 
for  a Te  Deum,  he  could  scarcely  bring  together 
forces  enough  in  all  Paris,  to  satisfy  his  Gargantuan 
appetite,  and  this  appetite  seemed  to  grow  by  what  it 
fed  on;  in  such  works  as  the  “Damnation  of  Faust” 
we  find  him  modestly  demanding  ten  harps,  yet 
by  no  means  attaining  the  effect  that  Wagner 
reaches  with  fewer,  in  “ Die  Meistersinger.”  In  the 
same  work  we  find  the  composer  asking  for  seven 
bassoons,  while  in  the  “March  to  Execution”  in  the 
Syinphonie  Fantastique  he  produced  a better  effect 
with  two.  Xo  ! it  was  Berlioz,  and  not  Wagner, 
who  loved  to  give  music  at  wholesale  ; the  criticism 


THE  SIZE  OF  THE  MODERN  ORCHESTRA.  303 


has  been  delivered  at  the  wrong  address ; the  Ger- 
man composer  Avas  a cordial  enemy  of  the  practice. 

Yet  Berlioz  often  produced  splendid  effects,  min- 
gled in  with  his  sensationalism.  In  his  Eequiem  for 
example,  he  aimed  at  picturing,  in  the  “Dies  Irre,” 
the  downfall  of  a world,  in  tones,  and  he  succeeded 
reasonably  well.  Here  one  can  forgive  the  tumult 
of  the  horde  of  instrumentalists,  for  the  end  attained, 
justified  the  means.  Sixteen  tenor  trombones,  and  a 
like  number  of  kettledrums,  are  but  an  indication  of 
how  heavily  the  other  parts  are  scored.  Here  the 
wonderful  crescendo  of  the  drums  in  harmonies,  and 
the  endless  fanfare  of  trumpets  prove  that  even  a 
noise,  if  AA^ell  scored,  can  become  thrilling.  But,  as  if 
to  shoAV  the  erratic  and  unreliable  character  of  his 
search  after  tonal  effects,  the  combination  of  pedal 
tones  of  bass  trombone,  with  the  highest  notes  of  the 
piccolo,  in  the  same  work,  is  a distinct  and  absolute 
failure.  To  catalogue  the  brilliant  tone  effects  which 
Berlioz  has  produced  would  at  once  shoAV  the  man  a 
genius,  but  he  was  caught  in  the  net  of  sensational- 
ism, and  more  frequently  asked  himself  regarding 
each  orchestral  device  — “Is  it  new?”  — than  “Is  it 
beautiful?” 


POETICAL  MUSIC  INSTRUC- 
TION. 


The  ancient  study  of  music  was  frequently  enliv- 
ened by  having  the  most  important  precepts  laid 
down  in  rhyme.  The  old  song  books,  for  example, 
had  encouraging  verses  for  the  student,  as  follows  : 

“Ye  little  boys  and  maidens  sweet, 

We  want  your  voices  clear  and  neat. 

Your  study  to  the  Discant  bring, 

The  only  part  that  you  should  sing.” 

But  in  this  utilitarian  school  of  poetry,  the  instru- 
mental student  was  not  forgotten.  The  writer  of 
this  volume  has  in  his  possession  a copy  of  Playford’s 
rare  “Introduction  to  the  Skill  of  Musick,”  in  which 
many  of  the  rules  of  the  art  are  laid  down  in  very 
jingly  doggerel.  Here,  for  example,  are  the  prelim- 
inary laws  as  given  in  1662  : 


POETICAL  MUSICAL  INSTBUCTiON.  305 


“To  attain  the  skill  of  Musick’s  art 
Learn  Gam-ut  up  and  down  by  heart. 

Thereby  to  learn  your  rules  and  spaces 

Notes’  names  are  known,  knowning  their  places.” 

To  impress  this  still  more  vividly  upon  the  student, 
the  following  hazy  stanza  is  added  : 

“No  man  can  sing  true  at  first  sight 
Unless  he  names  his  notes  aright. 

Which  soon  is  learnt  if  that  your  mi 
You  know  its  place  where  e’er  it  be.” 

Then  follow  some  remarkable  rules  by  which  it  is 
evidently  supposed  that  these  notes  can  be  memorized, 
although  to  us  they  seem  to  make  “confusion  worse 
confounded,”  Here  are  a few  choice  texts  : 

“If  that  no  fiat  be  set  in  B, 

Then  in  that  place  standeth  your  Mi? 

But  if  your  B alone  be  fiat, 

Then  E is  Mi,  be  sure  of  that ! ” 

The  following  rule  is  intelligible  enough : 

“The  first  three  notes  above  your  Mi 
Are  Fa,  Sol,  La,  here  you  may  see ! ” 

The  last  of  these  poetic  rules  describe  the  octaves 
very  quaintly  : 

“If  you’ll  sing  true  without  all  blame, 

You  ’ll  call  all  eights  by  the  same  name.” 


306 


THE  REALM  OF  MUSIC. 


But  amid  the  poetical  effusions  there  are  also  many 
practical  points  given. 

In  regard  to  the  study  of  the  violin,  the  author 
broaches  the  idea  that  frets  should  be  attached  to  the 
finger-board  until  the  student’s  ear  has  been  somewhat 
trained.  How  many  a false  note  and  terrible  disso- 
nance would  be  avoided  by  such  a proceeding  ! 

The  Viol  di  Gamba  had  permanent  frets ; why 
should  not  the  violin  have  them  at  least  temporarily 
in  the  interest  of  suffering  teachers  ? 


MUSICAL  RESEMBLANCES. 


Solomon’s  remark  that  “there  is  no  new  thing  un- 
der the  sun  ” is  quite  as  applicable  to  music  as  to  any 
other  branch  of  art  or  science.  It  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  avoid  treading  in  the  footprints  of  our 
predecessors  when  composing  some  very  simple  and 
singable  phrase.  The  fact  that  the  gentle  “Annie 
Eooney”  approaches  Brunnhilde,  or  that  the  “Poor 
Jonathan  ” fraternizes  with  Beckmesser  in  his  open- 
ing phrase,  by  no  means  proves  the  narrowness  of 
music,  for  treatment  means  far  more  than  mere  melodic 
construction,  a fact  which  Wagner  has  sufficiently  im- 
pressed upon  the  true  musician.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  these  resemblances  frequently  lead  to  disputes 
regarding  the  origin  of  some  of  the  most  famous  of 
melodies. 

There  is  no  simple  melody,  in  conjunct  movement, 
but  that  it  bears  sufficient  resemblance  to  some  other 
tune  to  start  the  cry  of  plagiarism.  Thus  the  English 
(307) 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


national  anthem  which  was  in  all  probability  the 
original  thought  of  Henry  Carey,  has  been  traced 
to  Dr.  John  Bull,  to  an  old  German  melody,  and  to 
half  a dozen  other  sources.  There  is  quite  as  much 
reason  to  charge  Beethoven  with  plagiarizing  the 
chief  theme  of  the  last  movement  of  his  ninth  sym- 
phony from  “Yankee  Doodle,”  to  which  it  bears 
great  resemblance.  Some  of  the  famous  resemblances 
are  startling  enough.  The  famous  hymn  “Sun  of 
my  Soul”  is  not  very  far  off  from  the  heterodox  “ Se 
vuol  ballare  ” of  “Figaro’s  Marriage.”  The  march 
in  a famous  Lacbner  Suite  and  the  march  in  Kaff’s 
“Lenore  Symphony”  are  rather  more  than  cousins. 
Mendelssohn’s  first  draft  of  “O  rest  in  the  Lord”  was 
an  unconscious  plagiarism  from  “Auld  Kobin  Gray” 
and  the  resemblance  can  even  now  be  noted  in  a 
careful  comparison  of  these  tunes.  Jensen’s  “Mur- 
muring Breeze”  is  not  very  far  (in  its  beginning) 
from  Bach’s  “My  heart  ever  faithful.” 

These  are  all  accidental  resemblances,  but  the  list  of 
intentional  plagiarisms,  is  not  much  smaller.  The 
gentle  German  “O  Tannenbaum,”  a song  of  fidelity 
and  truth,  became  a war  song  under  the  title  of 
“Maryland,  my  Maryland;”  the  old  Scotch  song 
“Jock  o’  Hazeldean  ” became  metamorphosed  into 
“Willie,  we  have  missed  you  ; ’’the  fiery  punch-song 
“Crambambuli  ” has  turned  into  the  mild  “O  come. 


MUSICAL  RESEMBLANCES. 


309 


come  away  a wild  highland  Strathspey  became 
first  “Oft  in  the  stilly  night”  and  afterwards  “Near- 
er, my  God,  to  Thee in  short,  the  list  of  musical 
plagiarisms  is  endless,  although  the  last  example  cited 
comes  rather  under  the  head  of  resemblances  than 
plagiarisms.  The  amateur  who  thinks  that  such  in- 
stances prove  the  poverty  of  melody  is  again  reminded 
that  it  is  treatment  rather  than  mere  tune  which  is 
the  glory  of  our  present  musical  system,  and  may 
find  consolation  in  the  fact  that  good  old  Handel  stole 
tunes  right  and  left,  but  gave  them  such  counterpoint 
that  the  original  owners  did  not  dare  to  elaim  their 
property,  and  when  Bach  gave  the  the  glorious  con- 
trapuntal treatment  to  Hassler’s  love-song  “My  mind 
is  all  distracted  ” he  did  more  than  invent  a new  mel- 
ody, he  gave  eternal  life  to  an  old  one,  under  the 
title  of  “O  Sacred  head  now  wounded.” 


TALENT  AND  GENIUS. 


It  has  become  the  fashion  in  these  days  to  contin- 
ually decry  talent,  and  to  seek  for  nothing  less  than 
genius,  in  the  world  of  musical  art,  particularly  in 
its  creative  branch.  Webster  defines  genius  as  “dis- 
tinguished mental  superiority  ; uncommon  intellectual 
power ; especially  superior  power  of  invention  or 
origination  of  any  kind  or  of  forming  nice  combina- 
tions,” while  talent  is  set  down  as  “intellectual 
ability,  natural  or  acquired ; mental  endowments  or 
capacity  ; skill  in  accomplishing.” 

These  definitions  yet  fail  to  dwell  on  the  chief 
point  of  difference  between  the  two  gifts ; Genius 
originates,  while  Talent  imitates.  Talent  makes  the 
best  of  things  that  exist,  while  genius  seeks  out  new 
paths.  Granting  all  this,  there  is  yet  a time  when 
talent  may  serve  the  world  in  excellent  stead.  There 
are  some  musical  talents  which  have  done  as  much 
service  to  art  as  geniuses.  Mattheson,  the  compan- 
(310) 


TALENT  AND  GENIUS. 


:’)M 

ion  of  ILindel,  was  ccrtaiiily  not  a genius  as  Ifis 
friend  most  eertainly  was,  yet  his  earefid  analysis  of 
the  musie  of  his  day  has  given  the  most  vahial)le 
material  to  the  historian,  and  has  made  many  points 
elear  that  would  have  remained  obseure  without  his 
painstaking  classification.  Among  the  sons  of  the 
great  Bach  was  one  genius  and  one  talent.  The  gen- 
ius, Wilhelm  Friedemann  Bach,  dispersed  many  of 
his  father’s  compositions,  defied  the  changing  spirit 
of  the  times,  clung  to  the  contrapuntal  styles,  which 
he  used  in  new  combinations,  and  exerted  no  influ- 
ence ; the  talent,  Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  noted  the 
trend  of  events,  carefully  elaborated  a system  of 
technique  made  necessary  by  the  changes  of  the  pi- 
ano, compiled  a catalogue  of  many  of  his  father’s 
compositions,  and  was  in  fact  the  connecting  link 
between  the  old  style  and  the  new. 

Of  course  these  are  exceptional  cases,  but  they  are 
cited  to  show  that  at  times  talent  can  be  of , greatest 
value  to  progress.  Generally  we  owe  the  advance- 
ment of  art  to  genius,  but  there  are  times  when  art 
seems  retrograding,  and  then  the  conservative  nature 
of  talent  prevents  a lapse.  Conservatism,  which  is 
the  predominant  characteristic  of  talent,  is  often  a 
most  valuable  counterweight  to  that  radicalism  which 
is  the  attribute  of  genius.  Genius  may  break  the 
path,  but  talent  smooths  it.  Genius  plunges  into 


312 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


the  new,  while  talent  makes  clear  the  good  that  is  in 
the  old.  Today  we  have  genius  discarding  much  of 
musical  form,  while  talent  is  forming  a good  bulwark 
against  its  overthrow  by  using  the  classical  shapes  in 
a manner  that  shows  that  they  are  not  threadbare  by 
any  means  yet.  And  talent  forever  remains  the  chief 
impediment  in  the  path  of  pseudo-genius,  that  bale- 
ful element  which  imagines  good  in  every  new  thing. 
If  it  is  at  times  the  opponent  of  genius,  it  ends  by  be- 
coming its  follower,  and  talent  ever  remains  the 
interpreter  of  genius.  It  is  a higher  compliment 
than  men  may  imagine,  to  say  of  a composer,  “He  is 
not  a genius,  but  certainly  a talent.” 


AT  THE  DEDICATION  OF  A 
MUSIC  HALL. 


O Art  Divine,  behold  thy  new-made  dwelling ! 
Descend  upon  the  altar  which  we  raise  ! 

While  unto  thee  our  homages  are  welling, 

While  in  thine  own  pure  tones  is  proudly  swelling 
Our  song  of  praise. 

Now  for  the  first  time  are  the  echoes  blending 
Here  where  hereafter  they  shall  have  their  home. 
From  past  to  future,  music’s  greeting  sending; 

For  they  shall  sound  in  cadence  never-ending 
Through  years  to  come. 

Here  shall  resound  the  clang  of  happy  singing. 

As  thy  disciples  gather  round  thy  throne ; 

And,  while  the  chorus  in  its  might  is  ringing. 

The  listening  soul  from  earth  to  heaven  is  swinging 
On  wings  of  tone. 

And,  at  the  hour  of  prayer,  the  organ,  pealing. 

Shall  sound  religion’s  messages  abroad, 

And  bid  “ Be  still”  to  every  earthly  feeling, 

While  each  rapt  heart  finds  every  tone  re  vealing 
A path  to  God. 


(313) 


314 


THE  BEALM  OF  MUSIC. 


Peace  on  these  portals  evermore  shall  hover ; 
Where  Music  dwells,  unrest  can  never  be ; 

A purer  sphere  the  seeker  shall  discover, 

Where  strife  and  pain  and  worldliness  are  over, 
Because  of  thee. 


Eeceive  thy  temple ! Live  in  it  forever. 
And  till  it  with  thy  harmony  divine ; 

And,  until  fate  the  mortal  harpstring  sever, 
Let  all  our  task  and  holiest  endeavor 
Be  wholly  thine. 


THE  END. 


